Seminars in Nuclear Medicine
Volume 34, Issue 3 , Pages 224-240 , July 2004

Current and future uses of positron emission tomography in breast cancer imaging

  • William B Eubank

      Affiliations

    • Department of Radiology (S-113-RAD), Puget Sound VA Health Care System, Seattle, WA, USA
    • Corresponding Author Information Address reprint requests to William B. Eubank, MD, Department of Radiology (S-113-RAD), Puget Sound VA Health Care System, 1660 South Columbian Way, Seattle, WA 98108-1597 USA
  • ,
  • David A Mankoff

      Affiliations

    • Division of Nuclear Medicine, University of Washington School of Medicine, Seattle, WA, USA

References 

  1. Greenlee RT, Murray T, Bolden S, et al.  Cancer Statistics, 2000. CA Cancer J Clin. 2000;50:7–33
  2. Hortobagyi GN. Developments in chemotherapy of breast cancer. Cancer. 2000;88(suppl 12):3073–3079
  3. Feldman LD, Hortobagyi GN, Buzdar AU, et al.  Pathological assessment of response to induction chemotherapy in breast cancer. Cancer Res. 1986;46:2578–2581
  4. Machiavelli MR, Romero AO, Pérez JE, et al.  Prognostic significance of pathological response of primary tumor and metastatic axillary lymph nodes after neoadjuvant chemotherapy for locally advanced breast carcinoma. Cancer J Sci Am. 1998;4:125–131
  5. Hortobagyi GN. Salvage chemotherapy for metastatic breast cancer. Semin Hematol. 1987;24:56–61
  6. Honig SH, Swain SM. Hormonal manipulation in the adjuvant treatment of breast cancer. In:  DeVita VT,  Hellman S,  Rosenberg SA editor. Important Advances in Oncology. Philadelphia: JB Lippincott; 1993;p. 103–123
  7. Wakeling AE, Nicholson RI, Gee JM. Prospects for combining hormonal and nonhormonal growth factor inhibition. Clin Cancer Res. 2001;7(12 Suppl):4350s–4355s discussion 4411s-4412s
  8. Husband JE. Monitoring tumor response. Eur Radiol. 1996;6:775–785
  9. Tannock IF, Hill RP. The Basic Science of Oncology. New York: McGraw-Hill; 1992;
  10. Wahl RL, Cody RL, Hutchins GD, et al.  Primary and metastatic breast carcinoma (initial clinical evaluation with PET with radiolabeled glucose antigen 2-[F-18]-fluoro-2-deoxy-D-glucose). Radiology. 1991;179:765–770
  11. Nieweg OE, Kim EE, Wong WH, et al.  Positron emission tomography with [fluorine-18]-deoxyglucose in the detection and staging of breast cancer. Cancer. 1993;71:3920–3925
  12. Bruce DM, Evans NT, Heys SD, et al.  Positron emission tomography (2-deoxy-2-[18F]-fluoro-D-glucose uptake in locally advanced breast cancers). Eur J Surg Oncol. 1995;21:280–283
  13. Tse NY, Hoh CK, Hawkins RA, et al.  The application of positron emission tomographic imaging with fluorodeoxyglucose to the evaluation of breast disease. Ann Surg. 1992;216:27–34
  14. Adler LP, Crowe JP, Al-Kaisi NK, et al.  Evaluation of breast masses and axillary lymph nodes with [F-18]-2-deoxy-2-fluoro-D-glucose PET. Radiology. 1993;187:743–750
  15. Hoh CK, Hawkins RA, Glaspy JA, et al.  Cancer detection with whole-body PET using 2-[F-18]-fluoro-2-deoxy-D-glucose. J Comput Assist Tomog. 1993;17:582–589
  16. Avril N, Dose J, Janicke F, et al.  Metabolic characterization of breast tumors with positron emission tomography using [F-18]-fluorodeoxyglucose. J Clin Oncol. 1996;14:1848–1857
  17. Avril N, Rose CA, Schelling M, et al.  Breast imaging with positron emission tomography and [fluorine-18]-fluorodeoxyglucose (use and limitations). J Clin Oncol. 2000;18:3495–3502
  18. Schirrmeister H, Kuhn T, Guhlmann A, et al.  [F-18]-2-deoxy-2-fluoro-D-glucose PET in the preoperative staging of breast cancer (Comparison with the standard staging procedures). Eur J Nucl Med. 2001;28:351–358
  19. Scheidhauer K, Scharl A, Pietrzyk U, et al.  Qualitative [18F]-FDG positron emission tomography in primary breast cancer (Clinical relevance and practicability). Eur J Nucl Med. 1996;23:618–623
  20. Parker SH, Jobe WE. Large-core breast biopsy offers reliable diagnosis. Diagnostic Imaging. 1990;12:90–97
  21. Orel SG, Schnall MD, Powell CM, et al.  Staging of suspected breast cancer (Effect of MR imaging and MR-guided biopsy). Radiology. 1995;196:115–122
  22. Weinberg I, Majewski S, Weisenberger A, et al.  Preliminary results for positron emission mammography (Real-time functional breast imaging in a conventional mammography gantry). Eur J Nucl Med. 1996;23:804–806
  23. Murthy K, Aznar M, Thompson CJ, et al.  Results of preliminary clinical trials of the positron emission mammography system PEM-I (A dedicated breast imaging system producing glucose metabolic images using FDG). J Nucl Med. 2000;41:1851–1858
  24. Murthy K, Aznar M, Bergman AM, et al.  Positron emission mammographic instrument (Initial results). Radiology. 2000;215:280–285
  25. Mankoff DA, Dunnwald LK, Kinahan PE. Are we ready for dedicated breast imaging approaches?. J Nucl Med. 2003;44:594–595 (invited commentary)
  26. Crippa F, Seregni E, Agresti R, et al.  Association between [18F]-fluorodeoxyglucose uptake and postoperative histopathology, hormone receptor status, thymidine labelling index and p53 in primary breast cancer (a preliminary observation). Eur J Nucl Med. 1998;25:1429–1434
  27. Oshida M, Uno K, Suzuki M, et al.  Predicting the prognoses of breast carcinoma patients with positron emission tomography using 2-deoxy-2-[18F]fluoro-D-glucose. Cancer. 1998;82:2227–2234
  28. Avril N, Menzel M, Dose J, et al.  Glucose metabolism of breast cancer assessed by 18F-FDG-PET (Hhistologic and immunohistochemical tissue analysis). J Nucl Med. 2001;42:9–16
  29. Bos R, van Der Hoeven JJ, van Der Wall E, et al.  Biologic correlates of [18F]-fluorodeoxyglucose uptake in human breast cancer measured by positron emission tomography. J Clin Oncol. 2002;20:379–387
  30. Mankoff DA, Dunnwald LK, Gralow JR, et al.  Blood flow and metabolism in locally advanced breast cancer (LABC) (Relationship to response to therapy). J Nucl Med. 2002;43:500–509
  31. Buck A, Schirrmeister H, Kuhn T, et al.  FDG uptake in breast cancer (correlation with biological and clinical prognostic parameters). Eur J Nucl Med Mol Imaging. 2002;29:1317–1323
  32. Dehdashti F, Mortimer JE, Siegel BA, et al.  Positron tomographic assessment of estrogen receptors in breast cancer (Comparison with FDG-PET and in vitro receptor assays). J Nucl Med. 1995;36:1766–1774
  33. Crippa F, Agresti R, Seregni E, et al.  Prospective evaluation of [fluorine-18]-FDG-PET in presurgical staging of the axilla in breast cancer. J Nucl Med. 1998;39:4–8
  34. Hockenberry D. Defining apoptosis. Am J Pathol. 1995;146:16–19
  35. Mathapala SP, Rempel A, Pederson PL. Aberrant glycolytic metabolism of cancer cells (A remarkable coordination of genetic, transcriptional, post-translational, and mutational events that lead to a critical role for type II hexokinase). J Bioenerg Biomembr. 1997;29:339–343
  36. Brand K. Aerobic glycosis by proliferating cells (Protection against oxidative stress at the expense of energy yield). J Bioenerg Biomembr. 1997;29:335–364
  37. Gottleib E, Heiden MV, Thompson CB. Bcl-xL prevents the initial disease in mitochondrial membrane potential and subsequent reactive oxygen species production during tumor necrosis factor alpha-induced apoptosis. MolCell Biol. 2000;20:5680–5689
  38. West KA, Castillo SS, Dennis PA. Activation of the PI3K/Akt pathway and chemotherapeutic resistance. Drug Resist Updat. 2002;6:234–248
  39. Mankoff DA, Dehdashti F, Shields AF. Characterizing tumors using metabolic imaging (PET imaging of cellular proliferation and steroid receptors). Neoplasia. 2000;2:71–88
  40. Rasey JS, Koh WJ, Evans ML, et al.  Quantifying regional hypoxia in human tumors with positron emission tomography of [18F]-fluoromisonidazole (A pretherapy study of 37 patients). Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys. 1996;36:417–428
  41. Adler LP, Faulhaber PF, Schnur KC, et al.  Axillary lymph node metastases (Screening with [F-18]-2-deoxy-2-fluoro-D-glucose (FDG) PET). Radiology. 1997;203:323–327
  42. Utech CI, Young CS, Winter PF. Prospective evaluation of [fluorine-18]-fluorodeoxyglucose positron emission tomography in breast cancer for staging of the axilla related to surgery and immunocytochemistry. Eur J Nucl Med. 1996;23:1588–1593
  43. Avril N, Dose J, Janicke F, et al.  Assessment of axillary lymph node involvement in breast cancer patients with positron emission tomography using radiolabeled 2-[fluorine-18]-fluoro-2-deoxy-D-glucose. J Natl Cancer Inst. 1996;88:1204–1209
  44. Smith IC, Ogston KN, Whitford P, et al.  Staging of the axilla in breast cancer (accurate in vivo assessment using positron emission tomography with 2-[fluorine-18]-fluoro-2-deoxy-D-glucose). Ann Surg. 1998;228:220–227
  45. Greco M, Crippa F, Agresti R, et al.  Axillary lymph node staging in breast cancer by 2-fluoro-2-deoxy-D-glucose-positron emission tomography (Clinical evaluation and alternative management). J Natl Cancer Inst. 2001;93:630–635
  46. Wahl RL, Siegel BA, Coleman RE, et al.  Prospective multi-center study of axillary nodal staging with FDG positron emission tomography in breast cancer. J Nucl Med. 2003;44:77P; (abstract)
  47. Silverstein MJ, Gierson ED, Waisman JR, et al.  Axillary lymph node dissection for T1a breast carcinoma. Is it indicated?. Cancer. 1994;73:664–667
  48. Yeatman TJ, Cox CE. The significance of breast cancer lymph node micrometastases. Surg Oncol Clin N Am. 1999;8:481–496
  49. Albertini JJ, Lyman GH, Cox C, et al.  Lymphatic mapping and sentinel node biopsy in the patient with breast cancer. JAMA. 1996;276:1818–1822
  50. Barranger E, Grahek D, Antoine M, et al.  Evaluation of fluorodeoxyglucose positron emission tomography in the detection of axillary lymph node metastases in patients with early-stage breast cancer. Ann Surg Oncol. 2003;10:622–627
  51. van der Hoeven JJ, Hoekstra OS, Comans EF, et al.  Determinants of diagnostic performance of [F-18]fluorodeoxyglucose positron emission tomography for axillary staging in breast cancer. Ann Surg. 2002;236:619–624
  52. Guller U, Nitzsche EU, Schirp U, et al.  Selective axillary surgery in breast cancer patients based on positron emission tomography with 18F-fluoro-2-deoxy-D-glucose (not yet!). Breast Cancer Res Treat. 2002;71:171–173
  53. Yang JH, Nam SJ, Lee TS, et al.  Comparison of intraoperative frozen section analysis of sentinel node with preoperative positron emission tomography in the diagnosis of axillary lymph node status in breast cancer patients. Jpn J Clin Oncol. 2001;31:1–6
  54. Kelemen PR, Lowe V, Phillips N. Positron emission tomography and sentinel lymph node dissection in breast cancer. Clin Breast Cancer. 2002;3:73–77
  55. Wagner JD, Schauwecker D, Davidson D, et al.  Prospective study of fluorodeoxyglucose-positron emission tomography imaging of lymph node basins in melanoma patients undergoing sentinel node biopsy. J Clin Oncol. 1999;17:1508–1515
  56. Wojcik C, Yahonda A, McFarlane D, et al.  Economic analysis of sentinel-node surgery versus preoperative FDG-PET in the management of patients with intermediate thickness cutaneous melanomas. J Nucl Med. 1997;38:34P; (abstract)
  57. Eubank WB, Mankoff DA, Schmiedl UP, et al.  Imaging of oncologic patients (Benefit of combined CT and [F-18]-fluorodeoxyglucose positron emission tomography scan interpretation in the diagnosis of malignancy). AJR. 1998;171:1103–1110
  58. Katz A, Strom EA, Buchholz TA, et al.  Locoregional recurrence patterns after mastectomy and doxorubicin-based chemotherapy (Implications for postoperative irradiation). J Clin Oncol. 2000;18:2817–2827
  59. Hathaway PB, Mankoff DA, Maravilla KR, et al.  The value of combined FDG-PET and magnetic resonance imaging in the evaluation of suspected recurrent local-regional breast cancer (preliminary experience). Radiology. 1998;210:807–814
  60. Ahmad A, Barrington S, Maisey M, et al.  Use of positron emission tomography in evaluation of brachial plexopathy in breast cancer patients. Br J Cancer. 1999;79:478–482
  61. Donegan WL. The influence of untreated internal mammary metastases upon the course of mammary cancer. Cancer. 1977;39:533–538
  62. Cody HS, Urban JA. Internal mammary node status (A major prognosticator in axillary node-negative breast cancer). Ann Surg Oncol. 1995;2:32–37
  63. Sugg SL, Ferguson DJ, Posner MC, et al.  Should internal mammary nodes be sampled in the sentinel lymph node era?. Ann Surg Oncol. 2000;7:188–192
  64. Bellon JR, Gralow JR, Livingston RB, et al: Evaluation of the internal mammary (IM) lymph nodes by FDG-PET in locally advanced breast cancer (LABC). Am J Clinical Oncol (in press)
  65. Bernstein V, Jones A, Mankoff DA, et al.  Assessment of internal mammary lymph nodes by fluorodeoxyglucose positron emission (FDG-PET) in medial hemisphere breast cancer. J Nucl Med. 2000;41:289P; (abstract)
  66. Vansteenkiste JF, Stroobants SG, De Leyn PR, et al.  Lymph node staging in non-small-cell lung cancer with FDG-PET scan (A prospective study on 690 lymph node stations from 68 patients). J Clin Oncol. 1998;16:2142–2149
  67. Scott WJ, Gobar LS, Terry JD, et al.  Mediastinal lymph node staging of non-small-cell lung cancer (A prospective comparison of computed tomography and positron emission tomography). J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg. 1996;111:642–648
  68. Eubank WB, Mankoff DA, Takasugi J, et al.  18Fluorodeoxyglucose positron emission tomography to detect mediastinal or internal mammary metastases in breast cancer. J Clin Oncol. 2001;19:3516–3523
  69. Moon DH, Maddahi J, Silverman DHS, et al.  Accuracy of whole-body [fluorine-18]-FDG-PET for the detection of recurrent or metastatic breast carcinoma. J Nucl Med. 1998;39:431–435
  70. Bender H, Kirst J, Palmedo H, et al.  Value of 18fluoro-deoxyglucose positron emission tomography in the staging of recurrent breast carcinoma. Anticancer Res. 1997;17:1687–1692
  71. Lonneux M, Borbath I, Berliere M, et al.  The place of whole-body PET FDG for the diagnosis of distant recurrence of breast cancer. Clinical Positron Imaging. 2000;3:45–49
  72. Kim TS, Moon WK, Lee DS, et al.  Fluorodeoxyglucose positron emission tomography for detection of recurrent or metastatic breast cancer. World J Surg. 2001;25:829–834
  73. Siggelkow W, Zimny M, Faridi A, et al.  The value of positron emission tomography in the follow-up for breast cancer. Anticancer Res. 2003;23:1859–1867
  74. Danforth DN, Aloj L, Carrasquillo JA, et al.  The role of 18F-FDG-PET in the local/regional evaluation of women with breast cancer. Breast Cancer Res Treat. 2002;75:135–146
  75. Kamel EM, Wyss MT, Fehr MK, et al.  [18F]-Fluorodeoxyglucose positron emission tomography in patients with suspected recurrence of breast cancer. J Cancer Res Clin Oncol. 2003;129:147–153
  76. Liu CS, Shen YY, Lin CC, et al.  Clinical impact of [18F]FDG-PET in patients with suspected recurrent breast cancer based on asymptomatically elevated tumor marker serum levels (a preliminary report). Jpn J Clin Oncol. 2002;32:244–247
  77. Gallowitsch HJ, Kresnik E, Gasser J, et al.  F-18 fluorodeoxyglucose positron-emission tomography in the diagnosis of tumor recurrence and metastases in the follow-up of patients with breast carcinoma (a comparison to conventional imaging). Invest Radiol. 2003;38:250–256
  78. Suarez M, Perez-Castejon MJ, Jimenez A, et al.  Early diagnosis of recurrent breast cancer with FDG-PET in patients with progressive elevation of serum tumor markers. Q J Nucl Med. 2002;46:113–121
  79. Eubank WB, Mankoff DA, Vesselle HJ, et al.  Detection of locoregional and distant recurrences in breast cancer patients by using FDG-PET. Radiographics. 2002;22:5–17
  80. Vranjesevic D, Filmont JE, Meta J, et al.  Whole-body 18F-FDG-PET and conventional imaging for predicting outcome in previously treated breast cancer patients. J Nucl Med. 2002;43:325–329
  81. Nielsen OS, Munro AJ, Tannock IF. Bone metastases (pathophysiology and management policy). J Clin Oncol. 1991;9:509–524
  82. Cook GJ, Houston S, Rubens R, et al.  Detection of bone metastases in breast cancer by 18FDG-PET (differing metabolic activity in osteoblastic and osteolytic lesions). J Clin Oncol. 1998;16:3375–3379
  83. Schirrmeister H, Guhlmann A, Kotzerke J, et al.  Early detection and accurate description of extent of metastatic bone disease in breast cancer with fluoride ion and positron emission tomography. J Clin Oncol. 1999;17:2381–2389
  84. Schirrmeister H, Glatting G, Hetzel J, et al.  Prospective evaluation of the clinical value of planar bone scans, SPECT, and [18]F-labeled NaF PET in newly diagnosed lung cancer. J Nucl Med. 2001;42:1800–1804
  85. Yap CS, Seltzer MA, Schieppers C, et al.  Impact of whole-body 18FDG-PET on staging and managing patients with breast cancer (the referring physician’s perspective). J Nucl Med. 2001;42:1334–1337
  86. Eubank WB, Mankoff DA, Bhattacharya M, et al.  Impact of [F-18]-Fluorodeoxyglucose PET on defining the extent of disease and management of patients with recurrent or metastatic breast cancer. AJR. 2004; (in press)
  87. Helvie MA, Joynt LK, Cody RL, et al.  Locally advanced breast carcinoma (accuracy of mammography versus clinical examination in the prediction of residual disease after chemotherapy). Radiology. 1996;198:327–332
  88. Wahl RL, Zasadny K, Helvie MA, et al.  Metabolic monitoring of breast cancer chemohormonotherapy using positron emission tomography (initial evaluation). J Clin Oncol. 1993;11:2101–2111
  89. Bassa P, Kim EE, Inoue T, et al.  Evaluation of preoperative chemotherapy using PET with [fluorine-18]-fluorodeoxyglucose in breast cancer. J Nucl Med. 1996;37:931–938
  90. Jansson T, Westlin J, Ahlstrom H, et al.  Positron emission tomography studies in patients with locally advanced and/or metastatic breast cancer (a method for early therapy evaluation?). J Clin Oncol. 1995;13:1470–1477
  91. Schelling M, Avril N, Nahrig J, et al.  Positron emission tomography using [18F]-fluorodeoxyglucose for monitoring primary chemotherapy in breast cancer. J Clin Oncol. 2000;18:1689–1695
  92. Smith IC, Welch AE, Hutcheon AW, et al.  Positron emission tomography using [18F]-fluorodeoxy-D-glucose to predict the pathologic response of breast cancer to primary chemotherapy. J Clin Oncol. 2000;18:1676–1688
  93. Jain RK. Haemodynamic and transport barriers to the treatment of solid tumors. Int J Radiat Biol. 1991;60:85–100
  94. Mankoff DA, Dunnwald LK, Gralow JR, et al.  Changes in blood flow and metabolism in locally advanced breast cancer treated with neoadjuvant chemotherapy. J Nucl Med. 2003;44:1806–1814
  95. Gennari A, Donati S, Salvadori B, et al.  Role of 2-[18F]-fluorodeoxyglucose (FDG) positron emission tomography (PET) in the early assessment of response to chemotherapy in metastatic breast cancer patients. Clin Breast Cancer. 2000;1:156–161
  96. Schneider JA, Divgi CR, Scott AM, et al.  Flare on bone scintigraphy following taxol chemotherapy for metastatic breast cancer. J Nucl Med. 1994;35:1748–1752
  97. Vogel C, Schoenfelder J, Shemano I, et al.  Worsening bone scan in the evaluation of antitumor response during hormonal therapy of breast cancer. J Clin Oncol. 1995;13:1123–1128
  98. Stafford SE, Gralow JR, Schubert EK, et al.  Use of serial FDG-PET to measure the response of bone-dominant breast cancer to therapy. Acad Radiol. 2001;9:913–921
  99. Mortimer JE, Dehdashti F, Siegel BA, et al.  Metabolic flare (indicator of hormone responsiveness in advanced breast cancer). J Clin Oncol. 2001;19:2797–2803
  100. Tannock IF. Cell proliferation. In:  Tannock IF,  Hill RP editor. The Basic Science of Oncology. New York: McGraw-Hill; 1992;
  101. Cleaver JE. Thymidine metabolism and cell kinetics. Frontiers Biol. 1967;6:43–100
  102. Livingston RB, Hart JS. The clinical applications of cell kinetics in cancer therapy. Annu Rev Toxicol. 1977;17:529–543
  103. Shields AF, Mankoff DA, Link JM, et al.  [Carbon-11]-thymidine and FDG to measure therapy response. J Nucl Med. 1998;39:1757–1762
  104. Shields AJ, Grierson J, Dohmen BM, et al.  Imaging proliferation in vivo with [F-18]FLT and positron emission tomography. Nat Med. 1998;4:1334–1336
  105. Grierson JR, Shields AF. Radiosynthesis of 3′-deoxy-3′-[(18)F]fluorothymidine ([(18)F]FLT for imaging of cellular proliferation in vivo). Nucl Med Biol. 2000;27:143–156
  106. Vesselle H, Grierson J, Muzi M, et al.  In vivo validation of 3′deoxy-3′-[(18)F]fluorothymidine ([(18)F]FLT) as a proliferation imaging tracer in humans (Correlation of [(18)F]FLT uptake by positron emission tomography with Ki-67 immunohistochemistry and flow cytometry in human lung tumors). Clin Cancer Res. 2002;8:3315–3323
  107. Pio BS, Park CK, Satyamurthy , et al.  PET with fluoro-L-thymidine allows early prediction of breast cancer response to chemotherapy. J Nucl Med. 2003;44:76P; (abstract)
  108. Sutherland RM. Tumor hypoxia and gene expression—implications for malignant progression and therapy. Acta Oncol. 1998;37:567–574
  109. Teicher BA. Hypoxia and drug resistance. Cancer Metastasis Rev. 1994;13:139–168
  110. Vaupel P, Hockel M. Oxygenation status of breast cancer (the Mainz experience). In:  Vaupel P, Kelleher  editor. Tumor Hypoxia. Stuttgart, Wissenschaftliche Veragsgesellschaft mbH. 1999;p. 1–11
  111. Clavo AC, Wahl RL. Effects of hypoxia on the uptake of tritiated thymidine, L-leucine, L-methionine and FDG in cultured cancer cells. J Nucl Med. 1996;37:502–506
  112. Rajendran JG, Mankoff DA, O’Sullivan F, et al.  Hypoxia and glucose metabolism in malignant tumors (evaluation by FMISO and FDG-PET imaging). Clin Cancer Res. 2004;10:2245–2252
  113. Rasey JS, Koh W, Grierson JR, et al.  Radiolabeled fluoromisonidazole as an imaging agent for tumor hypoxia. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys. 1989;17:985–991
  114. Rajendran JG, Krohn KA. Imaging tumor hypoxia. In:  Bailey DL,  Townsend DW,  Valk PE,  Maisey MN editor. Positron Emission Tomography (Principles and Practice). London: Springer Verlag; 2002;p. 689–696
  115. McGuire W, Horwitz K. Predicting response to endocrine therapy in human breast cancer (a hypothesis). Science. 1975;189:726–727
  116. Sledge GJ, McGuire W. Steroid hormone receptors in human breast cancer. Adv Cancer Res. 1983;38:61–75
  117. Hull DF, Clark GM, Osborne CK, et al.  Multiple estrogen receptor assays in human breast cancer. Cancer Res. 1983;43:413–416
  118. Reiner A, Neumeister B, Spona J, et al.  Immunocytochemical localization of estrogen and progesterone receptor and prognosis in human primary breast cancer. Cancer Res. 1990;50:7057–7061
  119. Katzenellenbogen JA, Welch MJ, Dehdashti F. The development of estrogen and progestin radiopharmaceuticals for imaging breast cancer. Anticancer Res. 1997;17:1573–1576
  120. Seimbelle Y, Rousseau J, Benard F, et al.  18F-labeled difluoroestrodiols (preparation and preclinical evaluation as estrogen receptor-binding radiopharmaeceuticals). Steroids. 2002;67:765–775
  121. Kiesewetter DO, Kilbourn MR, Landvatter SW, et al.  Preparation of four fluorine-18-labeled estrogens and their selective uptakes in target tissue of immature rats. J Nucl Med. 1984;25:1212–1221
  122. Mintun MA, Welch MJ, Siegel BA, et al.  Breast cancer (PET imaging of estrogen receptors). Radiology. 1988;169:45–48
  123. Mankoff DA, Peterson LM, Petra PH, et al.  Factors affecting the level and heterogeneity of uptake of [18F]Fluoroestradiol (FES) in patients with estrogen receptor positive (ER+) breast cancer. J Nucl Med. 2002;43:287P; (abstr)
  124. McGuire AH, Dehdashti F, Siegel BA, et al.  Positron tomographic assessment of 16alpha-[F-18]-fluoro-17beta-estradiol uptake in metastatic breast carcinoma. J Nucl Med. 1991;32:1526–1531
  125. Mankoff DA, Peterson LM, Tewson TJ, et al.  [18F]-fluoroestradiol radiation dosimetry in human PET studies. J Nucl Med. 2001;42:679–684
  126. Mankoff DA, Peterson LM, Tewson TJ, et al.  Non-invasive PET imaging of ER expression in breast cancer (sex steroid binding protein (SBP or SHBG) interaction and ER expression heterogeneity). Proc AACR. 2001;42:6; (abstract)
  127. Campbell FC, Blamey RW, Elston CW, et al.  Quantitative oestradiol receptor values in primary breast cancer and response of metastases to endocrine therapy. Lancet. 1981;1:1317–1319
  128. Dehdashti F, Flanagan FL, Mortimer JE, et al.  Positron emission tomographic assessment of “metabolic flare” to predict response of metastatic breast cancer to antiestrogen therapy. Eur J Nucl Med. 1999;26:51–56
  129. Mankoff DA, Peterson LM, Stekhova S, et al.  Uptake of [F-18]-Fluoroestradiol (FES) predicts response of recurrent or metastatic breast cancer to hormonal therapy. J Nucl Med. 2003;44:126P; (abstr)

 Supported in part by NIH grants RO1CA42045, RO1CA72064, and RO1CA90771.

PII: S0001-2998(04)00025-X

doi: 10.1053/j.semnuclmed.2004.03.007

Seminars in Nuclear Medicine
Volume 34, Issue 3 , Pages 224-240 , July 2004