Seminars in Nuclear Medicine
Volume 37, Issue 3 , Pages 154-172 , May 2007

Assessment of Age-Related Changes in Abdominal Organ Structure and Function With Computed Tomography and Positron Emission Tomography

References 

  1. Dang TT, Antolin P, Oxley H. Fiscal Implications of Ageing: Projections of Age-related Spending: OECD. 2001;
  2. Tietz NW, Shuey DF, Wekstein DR. Laboratory values in fit aging individuals—sexagenarians through centenarians. Clin Chem. 1992;38:1167–1185
  3. Heymsfield SB, Fulenwider T, Nordlinger B, et al. M: Accurate measurement of liver, kidney, and spleen volume and mass by computerized axial tomography. Ann Intern Med. 1979;90:185–187
  4. Urata K, Kawasaki S, Matsunami H, et al. Calculation of child and adult standard liver volume for liver transplantation. Hepatology. 1995;21:1317–1321
  5. Geraghty EM, Boone JM, McGahan JP, et al. Normal organ volume assessment from abdominal CT. Abdom Imaging. 2004;29:482–490
  6. Jackowski C, Thali MJ, Buck U, et al. Noninvasive estimation of organ weights by postmortem magnetic resonance imaging and multislice computed tomography. Invest Radiol. 2006;41:572–578
  7. Rubin RT, Phillips JJ. Adrenal gland volume determination by computed tomography and magnetic resonance imaging in normal subjects. Invest Radiol. 1991;26:465–469
  8. Lee YR, Lee KB. Reliability of magnetic resonance imaging for measuring the volumetric indices in autosomal-dominant polycystic kidney disease: Correlation with hypertension and renal function. Nephron Clin Pract. 2006;103:c173–c180
  9. Wynne HA, Cope LH, Mutch E, et al. The effect of age upon liver volume and apparent liver blood flow in healthy man. Hepatology. 1989;9:297–301
  10. Zoli M, Magalotti D, Bianchi G, et al. Total and functional hepatic blood flow decrease in parallel with ageing. Age Ageing. 1999;28:29–33
  11. Kampmann JP, Sinding J, Moller-Jorgensen I. Effect of age on liver function. Geriatrics. 1975;30:91–95
  12. Einarsson K, Nilsell K, Leijd B, et al. Influence of age on secretion of cholesterol and synthesis of bile acids by the liver. N Engl J Med. 1985;313:277–282
  13. Schmucker DL, Gilbert R, Jones AL, et al. Effect of aging on the hepatobiliary transport of dimeric immunoglobulin A in the male Fischer rat. Gastroenterology. 1985;88:436–443
  14. Markisz JA, Treves ST, Davis RT. Normal hepatic and splenic size in children: Scintigraphic determination. Pediatr Radiol. 1987;17:273–276
  15. Wakabayashi H, Nishiyama Y, Ushiyama T, et al. Evaluation of the effect of age on functioning hepatocyte mass and liver blood flow using liver scintigraphy in preoperative estimations for surgical patients: Comparison with CT volumetry. J Surg Res. 2002;106:246–253
  16. Konus OL, Ozdemir A, Akkaya A, et al. Normal liver, spleen, and kidney dimensions in neonates, infants, and children: Evaluation with sonography. AJR Am J Roentgenol. 1998;171:1693–1698
  17. Johnson TN, Tucker GT, Tanner MS, et al. Changes in liver volume from birth to adulthood: a meta-analysis. Liver Transpl. 2005;11:1481–1493
  18. Chan SC, Liu CL, Lo CM, et al. Estimating liver weight of adults by body weight and gender. World J Gastroenterol. 2006;12:2217–2222
  19. Zeeh J, Platt D. The aging liver: Structural and functional changes and their consequences for drug treatment in old age. Gerontology. 2002;48:121–127
  20. Marchesini G, Bua V, Brunori A, et al. Galactose elimination capacity and liver volume in aging man. Hepatology. 1988;8:1079–1083
  21. Fabbri A, Marchesini G, Bianchi G, et al. Kinetics of hepatic amino-nitrogen conversion in ageing man. Liver. 1994;14:288–294
  22. Niederau C, Sonnenberg A, Muller JE, et al. Sonographic measurements of the normal liver, spleen, pancreas, and portal vein. Radiology. 1983;149:537–540
  23. Vauthey JN, Abdalla EK, Doherty DA, et al. Body surface area and body weight predict total liver volume in Western adults. Liver Transpl. 2002;8:233–240
  24. Watanabe T, Tanaka Y. Age-related alterations in the size of human hepatocytes (A study of mononuclear and binucleate cells). Virchows Arch B Cell Pathol Incl Mol Pathol. 1982;39:9–20
  25. Tauchi H, Sato T. Age changes in size and number of mitochondria of human hepatic cells. J Gerontol. 1968;23:454–461
  26. Marchesini G, Bianchi GP, Fabbri A, et al. Synthesis of urea after a protein-rich meal in normal man in relation to ageing. Age Ageing. 1990;19:4–10
  27. Ryu SW, Woo JH, Kim YH, et al. Downregulation of protein kinase CKII is associated with cellular senescence. FEBS Lett. 2006;580:988–994
  28. Muller-Hocker J, Aust D, Rohrbach H, et al. Defects of the respiratory chain in the normal human liver and in cirrhosis during aging. Hepatology. 1997;26:709–719
  29. Sastre J, Pallardo FV, Vina J. The role of mitochondrial oxidative stress in aging. Free Radic Biol Med. 2003;35:1–8
  30. Tanikawa K, Torimura T. Studies on oxidative stress in liver diseases: Important future trends in liver research. Med Mol Morphol. 2006;39:22–27
  31. Grasedyck K, Jahnke M, Friedrich O, et al. Aging of liver: Morphological and biochemical changes. Mech Ageing Dev. 1980;14:435–442
  32. Schmucker DL, Wang RK. Age-dependent alterations in rat liver microsomal NADPH-cytochrome c (P-450) reductase: A qualitative and quantitative analysis. Mech Ageing Dev. 1983;21:137–156
  33. Woodhouse KW, Mutch E, Williams FM, et al. The effect of age on pathways of drug metabolism in human liver. Age Ageing. 1984;13:328–334
  34. Arora S, Kassarjian Z, Krasinski SD, et al. Effect of age on tests of intestinal and hepatic function in healthy humans. Gastroenterology. 1989;96:1560–1565
  35. Schmucker DL, Woodhouse KW, Wang RK, et al. Effects of age and gender on in vitro properties of human liver microsomal monooxygenases. Clin Pharmacol Ther. 1990;48:365–374
  36. Handler JA, Genell CA, Goldstein RS. Hepatobiliary function in senescent male Sprague-Dawley rats. Hepatology. 1994;19:1496–1503
  37. Sastre J, Pallardo FV, Pla R, et al. Aging of the liver: age-associated mitochondrial damage in intact hepatocytes. Hepatology. 1996;24:1199–1205
  38. Mosoni L, Patureau Mirand P, Houlier ML, Arnal M. Age-related changes in protein synthesis measured in vivo in rat liver and gastrocnemius muscle. Mech Ageing Dev. 1993;68:209–220
  39. Mosoni L, Valluy MC, Serrurier B, et al. Altered response of protein synthesis to nutritional state and endurance training in old rats. Am J Physiol. 1995;268:E328–E335
  40. Bezerra AS, D’Ippolito G, Faintuch S, et al. Determination of splenomegaly by CT: Is there a place for a single measurement?. AJR Am J Roentgenol. 2005;184:1510–1513
  41. Megremis SD, Vlachonikolis IG, Tsilimigaki AM. Spleen length in childhood with US: Normal values based on age, sex, and somatometric parameters. Radiology. 2004;231:129–134
  42. Loftus WK, Metreweli C. Normal splenic size in a Chinese population. J Ultrasound Med. 1997;16:345–347
  43. Rodrigues CJ, Sacchetti JC, Rodrigues AJ. Age-related changes in the elastic fiber network of the human splenic capsule. Lymphology. 1999;32:64–69
  44. Kaneko J, Sugawara Y, Matsui Y, et al. Normal splenic volume in adults by computed tomography. Hepatogastroenterology. 2002;49:1726–1727
  45. Markus HS, Toghill PJ. Impaired splenic function in elderly people. Age Ageing. 1991;20:287–290
  46. Ravaglia G, Forti P, Biagi F, et al. Splenic function in old age. Gerontology. 1998;44:91–94
  47. Zidan M, Kassem A, Pabst R. Megakaryocytes and platelets in the spleen of the dromedary camel (Camelus dromedarius). Anat Histol Embryol. 2000;29:221–224
  48. Chinnaiyan AM, O’Rourke K, Yu GL, et al. Signal transduction by DR3, a death domain-containing receptor related to TNFR-1 and CD95. Science. 1996;274:990–992
  49. Itzhaki O, Skutelsky E, Kaptzan T, et al. Ageing-apoptosis relation in murine spleen. Mech Ageing Dev. 2003;124:999–1012
  50. Anand BS, Vij JC, Mac HS, et al. Effect of aging on the pancreatic ducts: A study based on endoscopic retrograde pancreatography. Gastrointest Endosc. 1989;35:210–213
  51. Gilbeau JP, Poncelet V, Libon E, et al. The density, contour, and thickness of the pancreas in diabetics: CT findings in 57 patients. AJR Am J Roentgenol. 1992;159:527–531
  52. Migdalis IN, Voudouris G, Kalogeropoulou K, et al. Size of the pancreas in non-insulin-dependent diabetic patients. J Med. 1991;22:179–186
  53. Tsushima Y, Kusano S. Age-dependent decline in parenchymal perfusion in the normal human pancreas: Measurement by dynamic computed tomography. Pancreas. 1998;17:148–152
  54. Glaser J, Stienecker K. Does aging influence pancreatic response in the ultrasound secretin test by impairing hydrokinetic exocrine function or sphincter of Oddi motor function?. Dig Liver Dis. 2000;32:25–28
  55. Gullo L, Ventrucci M, Naldoni P, et al. Aging and exocrine pancreatic function. J Am Geriatr Soc. 1986;34:790–792
  56. Vellas B, Balas D, Moreau J, et al. Exocrine pancreatic secretion in the elderly. Int J Pancreatol. 1988;3:497–502
  57. Laugier R, Bernard JP, Berthezene P, et al. Changes in pancreatic exocrine secretion with age: Pancreatic exocrine secretion does decrease in the elderly. Digestion. 1991;50:202–211
  58. Ball GD, Huang TT, Gower BA, et al. Longitudinal changes in insulin sensitivity, insulin secretion, and beta-cell function during puberty. J Pediatr. 2006;148:16–22
  59. Utzschneider KM, Carr DB, Hull RL, et al. Impact of intra-abdominal fat and age on insulin sensitivity and beta-cell function. Diabetes. 2004;53:2867–2872
  60. Kahn SE, Larson VG, Schwartz RS, et al. Exercise training delineates the importance of B-cell dysfunction to the glucose intolerance of human aging. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 1992;74:1336–1342
  61. Ihm SH, Matsumoto I, Sawada T, et al. Effect of donor age on function of isolated human islets. Diabetes. 2006;55:1361–1368
  62. Bourey RE, Kohrt WM, Kirwan JP, et al. Relationship between glucose tolerance and glucose-stimulated insulin response in 65-year-olds. J Gerontol. 1993;48:M122–M127
  63. Gumbiner B, Polonsky KS, Beltz WF, et al. Effects of aging on insulin secretion. Diabetes. 1989;38:1549–1556
  64. Hauffa BP, Menzel D, Stolecke H. Age-related changes in adrenal size during the first year of life in normal newborns, infants and patients with congenital adrenal hyperplasia due to 21-hydroxylase deficiency: Comparison of ultrasound and hormonal parameters. Eur J Pediatr. 1988;148:43–49
  65. Reaven E, Kostrna M, Ramachandran J, et al. Structure and function changes in rat adrenal glands during aging. Am J Physiol. 1988;255:E903–E911
  66. Hornsby PJ. Aging of the human adrenal cortex. Ageing Res Rev. 2002;1:229–242
  67. Lashansky G, Saenger P, Fishman K, et al. Normative data for adrenal steroidogenesis in a healthy pediatric population: Age- and sex-related changes after adrenocorticotropin stimulation. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 1991;73:674–686
  68. Roberts NA, Barton RN, Horan MA. Ageing and the sensitivity of the adrenal gland to physiological doses of ACTH in man. J Endocrinol. 1990;126:507–513
  69. Belloni AS, Rebuffat P, Malendowicz LK, et al. Age-related changes in the morphology and function of the zona glomerulosa of the rat adrenal cortex. Tissue Cell. 1992;24:835–842
  70. Pignatelli D, Pinto P, Magalhaes MM, et al. The development of the adrenal gland zona glomerulosa in the rat (A morphological, immunohistochemical and biochemical study). Mol Cell Endocrinol. 1998;140:163–168
  71. Orentreich N, Brind JL, Vogelman JH, et al. Long-term longitudinal measurements of plasma dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate in normal men. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 1992;75:1002–1004
  72. Ravaglia G, Forti P, Maioli F, et al. The relationship of dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate (DHEAS) to endocrine-metabolic parameters and functional status in the oldest-old (Results from an Italian study on healthy free-living over-ninety-year-olds). J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 1996;81:1173–1178
  73. Seals DR, Esler MD. Human ageing and the sympathoadrenal system. J Physiol. 2000;528:407–417
  74. Mabry TR, Gold PE, McCarty R. Age-related changes in plasma catecholamine responses to chronic intermittent stress. Physiol Behav. 1995;58:49–56
  75. Parker CR, Slayden SM, Azziz R, et al. Effects of aging on adrenal function in the human: responsiveness and sensitivity of adrenal androgens and cortisol to adrenocorticotropin in premenopausal and postmenopausal women. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2000;85:48–54
  76. Han BK, Babcock DS. Sonographic measurements and appearance of normal kidneys in children. AJR Am J Roentgenol. 1985;145:611–616
  77. Dinkel E, Ertel M, Dittrich M, et al. Kidney size in childhood (Sonographical growth charts for kidney length and volume). Pediatr Radiol. 1985;15:38–43
  78. McLachlan M, Wasserman P. Changes in sizes and distensibility of the aging kidney. Br J Radiol. 1981;54:488–491
  79. Emamian SA, Nielsen MB, Pedersen JF, et al. Kidney dimensions at sonography: Correlation with age, sex, and habitus in 665 adult volunteers. AJR Am J Roentgenol. 1993;160:83–86
  80. Gourtsoyiannis N, Prassopoulos P, Cavouras D, et al. The thickness of the renal parenchyma decreases with age: A CT study of 360 patients. AJR Am J Roentgenol. 1990;155:541–544
  81. Daly MJ, Milutinovic J, Rudd TG, et al. The normal 99mTc-DMSA renal image. Radiology. 1978;128:701–704
  82. Brandt TD, Neiman HL, Dragowski MJ, et al. Ultrasound assessment of normal renal dimensions. J Ultrasound Med. 1982;1:49–52
  83. Okoye IJ, Agwu KK, Idigo FU. Normal sonographic renal length in adult southeast Nigerians. Afr J Med Med Sci. 2005;34:129–131
  84. Spitzer A. Twenty-one years of developmental nephrology: The kidney then and now. Pediatr Nephrol. 2003;18:165–173
  85. Epstein M. Aging and the kidney. J Am Soc Nephrol. 1996;7:1106–1122
  86. Hollenberg NK, Rivera A, Meinking T, et al. Age, renal perfusion and function in island-dwelling indigenous Kuna Amerinds of Panama. Nephron. 1999;82:131–138
  87. Fliser D, Zeier M, Nowack R, et al. Renal functional reserve in healthy elderly subjects. J Am Soc Nephrol. 1993;3:1371–1377
  88. Luippold G, Pech B, Schneider S, et al. Age dependency of renal function in CD-1 mice. Am J Physiol Renal Physiol. 2002;282:F886–F890
  89. Boyd RA, Turck D, Abel RB, et al. Effects of age and gender on single-dose pharmacokinetics of gabapentin. Epilepsia. 1999;40:474–479
  90. Lin J, Knight EL, Hogan ML, et al. A comparison of prediction equations for estimating glomerular filtration rate in adults without kidney disease. J Am Soc Nephrol. 2003;14:2573–2580
  91. Lim WH, Lim EM, McDonald S. Lean body mass-adjusted Cockcroft and Gault formula improves the estimation of glomerular filtration rate in subjects with normal-range serum creatinine. Nephrology (Carlton). 2006;11:250–256
  92. Manttari M, Tiula E, Alikoski T, et al. Effects of hypertension and dyslipidemia on the decline in renal function. Hypertension. 1995;26:670–675
  93. Bleyer AJ, Shemanski LR, Burke GL, et al. Tobacco, hypertension, and vascular disease: risk factors for renal functional decline in an older population. Kidney Int. 2000;57:2072–2079
  94. Bax L, van der Graaf Y, Rabelink AJ, et al. Influence of atherosclerosis on age-related changes in renal size and function. Eur J Clin Invest. 2003;33:34–40
  95. Melk A, Mansfield ES, Hsieh SC, et al. Transcriptional analysis of the molecular basis of human kidney aging using cDNA microarray profiling. Kidney Int. 2005;68:2667–2679
  96. Moriguchi J, Ezaki T, Tsukahara T, et al. Effects of aging on cadmium and tubular dysfunction markers in urine from adult women in non-polluted areas. Int Arch Occup Environ Health. 2005;78:446–451
  97. Thomas SE, Anderson S, Gordon KL, et al. Tubulointerstitial disease in aging: evidence for underlying peritubular capillary damage, a potential role for renal ischemia. J Am Soc Nephrol. 1998;9:231–242
  98. Goyal VK. Changes with age in the human kidney. Exp Gerontol. 1982;17:321–331
  99. Fardoun RZ, Asghar M, Lokhandwala M. Role of oxidative stress in defective renal dopamine D1 receptor-G protein coupling and function in old Fischer 344 rats. Am J Physiol Renal Physiol. 2006;291:F945–F951
  100. Jiang T, Liebman SE, Lucia MS, et al. Role of altered renal lipid metabolism and the sterol regulatory element binding proteins in the pathogenesis of age-related renal disease. Kidney Int. 2005;68:2608–2620
  101. Schmalfuss IM, Mancuso AA, Tart RP. Postcricoid region and cervical esophagus: Normal appearance at CT and MR imaging. Radiology. 2000;214:237–246
  102. Omari T, Snel A, Barnett C, et al. Measurement of upper esophageal sphincter tone and relaxation during swallowing in premature infants. Am J Physiol. 1999;277:G862–G866
  103. Jadcherla SR, Duong HQ, Hofmann C, et al. Characteristics of upper oesophageal sphincter and oesophageal body during maturation in healthy human neonates compared with adults. Neurogastroenterol Motil. 2005;17:663–670
  104. Fulp SR, Dalton CB, Castell JA, et al. Aging-related alterations in human upper esophageal sphincter function. Am J Gastroenterol. 1990;85:1569–1572
  105. Grande L, Lacima G, Ros E, et al. Deterioration of esophageal motility with age: A manometric study of 79 healthy subjects. Am J Gastroenterol. 1999;94:1795–1801
  106. Ren J, Shaker R, Kusano M, et al. Effect of aging on the secondary esophageal peristalsis: Presbyesophagus revisited. Am J Physiol. 1995;268:G772–G779
  107. Hollis JB, Castell DO. Esophageal function in elderly man (A new look at “presbyesophagus”). Ann Intern Med. 1974;80:371–374
  108. Eckardt VF, LeCompte PM. Esophageal ganglia and smooth muscle in the elderly. Am J Dig Dis. 1978;23:443–448
  109. Meciano Filho J, Carvalho VC, de Souza RR. Nerve cell loss in the myenteric plexus of the human esophagus in relation to age: A preliminary investigation. Gerontology. 1995;41:18–21
  110. Taha AS, Angerson W, Nakshabendi I, et al. Gastric and duodenal mucosal blood flow in patients receiving non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs—influence of age, smoking, ulceration and Helicobacter pylori. Aliment Pharmacol Ther. 1993;7:41–45
  111. Lee M. Age-related changes in gastric blood flow in rats. Gerontology. 1996;42:289–293
  112. Feldman M, Cryer B, McArthur KE, et al. Effects of aging and gastritis on gastric acid and pepsin secretion in humans: A prospective study. Gastroenterology. 1996;110:1043–1052
  113. Farinati F, Formentini S, Della Libera G, et al. Changes in parietal and mucous cell mass in the gastric mucosa of normal subjects with age: a morphometric study. Gerontology. 1993;39:146–151
  114. Vogiagis D, Glare EM, Misajon A, et al. Cyclooxygenase-1 and an alternatively spliced mRNA in the rat stomach: Effects of aging and ulcers. Am J Physiol Gastrointest Liver Physiol. 2000;278:G820–G827
  115. Cryer B, Lee E, Feldman M. Factors influencing gastroduodenal mucosal prostaglandin concentrations: Roles of smoking and aging. Ann Intern Med. 1992;116:636–640
  116. Cryer B, Redfern JS, Goldschmiedt M, et al. Effect of aging on gastric and duodenal mucosal prostaglandin concentrations in humans. Gastroenterology. 1992;102:1118–1123
  117. Goto H, Sugiyama S, Ohara A, et al. Age-associated decreases in prostaglandin contents in human gastric mucosa. Biochem Biophys Res Commun. 1992;186:1443–1448
  118. Madsen JL. Effects of gender, age, and body mass index on gastrointestinal transit times. Dig Dis Sci. 1992;37:1548–1553
  119. Graff J, Brinch K, Madsen JL. Gastrointestinal mean transit times in young and middle-aged healthy subjects. Clin Physiol. 2001;21:253–259
  120. O’Donovan D, Hausken T, Lei Y, et al. Effect of aging on transpyloric flow, gastric emptying, and intragastric distribution in healthy humans—impact on glycemia. Dig Dis Sci. 2005;50:671–676
  121. Smits GJ, Lefebvre RA. Influence of aging on gastric emptying of liquids, small intestine transit, and fecal output in rats. Exp Gerontol. 1996;31:589–596
  122. Moore JG, Tweedy C, Christian PE, et al. Effect of age on gastric emptying of liquid—solid meals in man. Dig Dis Sci. 1983;28:340–344
  123. Kao CH, Lai TL, Wang SJ, et al. Influence of age on gastric emptying in healthy Chinese. Clin Nucl Med. 1994;19:401–404
  124. Horowitz M, Maddern GJ, Chatterton BE, et al. Changes in gastric emptying rates with age. Clin Sci (Lond). 1984;67:213–218
  125. Wegener M, Borsch G, Schaffstein J, et al. Effect of ageing on the gastro-intestinal transit of a lactulose-supplemented mixed solid-liquid meal in humans. Digestion. 1988;39:40–46
  126. Brogna A, Ferrara R, Bucceri AM, et al. Influence of aging on gastrointestinal transit time (An ultrasonographic and radiologic study). Invest Radiol. 1999;34:357–359
  127. Linke R, Muenzing W, Tatsch K. Is normal gastric emptying a predictor of normal gastric function?. Nuklearmedizin. 2005;44:81–85
  128. Phillips RJ, Powley TL. As the gut ages: Timetables for aging of innervation vary by organ in the Fischer 344 rat. J Comp Neurol. 2001;434:358–377
  129. Salaun PY, Grewal RK, Dodamane I, et al. An analysis of the 18F-FDG uptake pattern in the stomach. J Nucl Med. 2005;46:48–51
  130. Goodlad RA, Wright NA. Changes in intestinal cell proliferation, absorptive capacity and structure in young, adult and old rats. J Anat. 1990;173:109–118
  131. Catassi C, Bonucci A, Coppa GV, et al. Intestinal permeability changes during the first month: Effect of natural versus artificial feeding. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr. 1995;21:383–386
  132. Kalach N, Rocchiccioli F, de Boissieu D, et al. Intestinal permeability in children: variation with age and reliability in the diagnosis of cow’s milk allergy. Acta Paediatr. 2001;90:499–504
  133. Goto K, Chew F, Torun B, et al. Epidemiology of altered intestinal permeability to lactulose and mannitol in Guatemalan infants. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr. 1999;28:282–290
  134. Wester T, O’Briain DS, Puri P. Notable postnatal alterations in the myenteric plexus of normal human bowel. Gut. 1999;44:666–674
  135. de Souza RR, Moratelli HB, Borges N, et al. Age-induced nerve cell loss in the myenteric plexus of the small intestine in man. Gerontology. 1993;39:183–188
  136. Husebye E, Engedal K. The patterns of motility are maintained in the human small intestine throughout the process of aging. Scand J Gastroenterol. 1992;27:397–404
  137. Anuras S, Sutherland J. Small intestinal manometry in healthy elderly subjects. J Am Geriatr Soc. 1984;32:581–583
  138. Smits GJ, Lefebvre RA. Influence of age on cholinergic and inhibitory nonadrenergic noncholinergic responses in the rat ileum. Eur J Pharmacol. 1996;303:79–86
  139. Gomes OA, de Souza RR, Liberti EA. A preliminary investigation of the effects of aging on the nerve cell number in the myenteric ganglia of the human colon. Gerontology. 1997;43:210–217
  140. Hanani M, Fellig Y, Udassin R, et al. Age-related changes in the morphology of the myenteric plexus of the human colon. Auton Neurosci. 2004;113:71–78
  141. Di Lorenzo C, Flores AF, Hyman PE. Age-related changes in colon motility. J Pediatr. 1995;127:593–596
  142. Gabella G. Development and ageing of intestinal musculature and nerves: The guinea-pig taenia coli. J Neurocytol. 2001;30:733–766
  143. McDougal JN, Miller MS, Burks TF, et al. Age-related changes in colonic function in rats. Am J Physiol. 1984;247:G542–G546
  144. Loening-Baucke V, Anuras S. Sigmoidal and rectal motility in healthy elderly. J Am Geriatr Soc. 1984;32:887–891
  145. Lopes GS, Ferreira AT, Oshiro ME, et al. Aging-related changes of intracellular Ca2+ stores and contractile response of intestinal smooth muscle. Exp Gerontol. 2006;41:55–62
  146. Orr WC, Chen CL. Aging and neural control of the GI tract: IV (Clinical and physiological aspects of gastrointestinal motility and aging). Am J Physiol Gastrointest Liver Physiol. 2002;283:G1226–G1231
  147. Watters DA, Smith AN, Eastwood MA, et al. Mechanical properties of the colon: Comparison of the features of the African and European colon in vitro. Gut. 1985;26:384–392
  148. Akervall S, Nordgren S, Fasth S, et al. The effects of age, gender, and parity on rectoanal functions in adults. Scand J Gastroenterol. 1990;25:1247–1256
  149. Parry DA, Barnes GR, Craig AS. A comparison of the size distribution of collagen fibrils in connective tissues as a function of age and a possible relation between fibril size distribution and mechanical properties. Proc R Soc Lond B Biol Sci. 1978;203:305–321
  150. Haber HP, Stern M. Intestinal ultrasonography in children and young adults: Bowel wall thickness is age dependent. J Ultrasound Med. 2000;19:315–321
  151. Thomson HJ, Busuttil A, Eastwood MA, et al. Submucosal collagen changes in the normal colon and in diverticular disease. Int J Colorectal Dis. 1987;2:208–213
  152. Wess L, Eastwood MA, Wess TJ, et al. Cross linking of collagen is increased in colonic diverticulosis. Gut. 1995;37:91–94
  153. Talley NJ, O’Keefe EA, Zinsmeister AR, et al. Prevalence of gastrointestinal symptoms in the elderly: a population-based study. Gastroenterology. 1992;102:895–901

PII: S0001-2998(07)00022-0

doi: 10.1053/j.semnuclmed.2007.02.001

Seminars in Nuclear Medicine
Volume 37, Issue 3 , Pages 154-172 , May 2007