Seminars in Nuclear Medicine
Volume 37, Issue 5 , Pages 357-381 , September 2007

Nuclear Medicine in Pediatric Neurology and Neurosurgery: Epilepsy and Brain Tumors

  • Shekhar Patil, MD

      Affiliations

    • Fellow in Paediatric Neurosciences, UCL–Institute of Child Health, Great Ormond Street Hospital for Children NHS Trust and the National Centre for Young People with Epilepsy, London, United Kingdom.
    • ,
  • Lorenzo Biassoni, MD

      Affiliations

    • Department of Radiology, Great Ormond Street Hospital for Children and Institute of Child Health, University College London, London, United Kingdom.
    • Corresponding Author InformationAddress reprint requests to Lorenzo Biassoni, MD, Department of Radiology, Hospital for Children and Institute of Child Health, University College London, Great Ormond Street, London WC1N 3JH, United Kingdom.
    • ,
  • Lise Borgwardt, MD, PhD

      Affiliations

    • Department for Clinical Physiology, Nuclear Medicine and PET, Copenhagen University Hospital Rigshospitalet, Copenhagen, Denmark.

References 

  1. Hauser W. Epilepsy: Frequency, Causes and Consequences. New York: Demos Press; 1990;
  2. Berg AT, Langfitt J, Shinnar S, et al. How long does it take for partial epilepsy to become intractable?. Neurology. 2003;60:186–190
  3. Engel J. Surgery for seizures. N Engl J Med. 1996;334:647–652
  4. Cross JH. Epilepsy surgery in childhood. Epilepsia. 2002;43(suppl):65–70
  5. Cross JH, Jayakar P, Nordli D, et al. Proposed criteria for referral and evaluation of children for epilepsy surgery: Recommendations of the Subcommission for Pediatric Epilepsy Surgery. Epilepsia. 2006;47:952–959
  6. Scott RC, King MD, Gadian DG, et al. Hippocampal abnormalities after prolonged febrile convulsion: A longitudinal MRI study. Brain. 2003;126:2551–2557
  7. Jackson GD, Connelly A, Duncan JS, et al. Detection of hippocampal pathology in intractable partial epilepsy: Increased sensitivity with quantitative magnetic resonance T2 relaxometry. Neurology. 1993;43:1793–1799
  8. Woermann FG, Barker GJ, Birnie KD, et al. Regional changes in hippocampal T2 relaxation and volume: A quantitative magnetic resonance imaging study of hippocampal sclerosis. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 1998;65:656–664
  9. Pell GS, Briellmann RS, Waites AB, et al. Voxel based relaxometry: A new approach for analysis of T2 relaxometry changes in epilepsy. Neuroimage. 2004;21:707–713
  10. Jutila L, Immonen A, Mervaala E, et al. Long-term outcome of temporal lobe epilepsy surgery: Analyses of 140 consecutive patients. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 2002;73:486–494
  11. Lin JJ, Salamon N, Dutton RA, et al. Three-dimensional preoperative maps of hippocampal atrophy predict surgical outcomes in temporal lobe epilepsy. Neurology. 2005;65:1094–1097
  12. Engel J. Chair Report of the ILAE classification core group. Epilepsia. 2006;47:1558–1568
  13. Henry TR. Progress in epilepsy research: Functional neuroimaging with positron emission tomography. Epilepsia. 1996;37:1141–1154
  14. Henry TR, Pennell PB. Neuropharmacological imaging in epilepsy with PET and SPECT. Quart J Nucl Med. 1998;42:199–210
  15. Cherry SR, Phelps ME. Imaging brain function with positron emission tomography. In:  Toga AW,  Mazziotta JC editor. Brain Mapping—The Methods. San Diego: Academic Press; 1996;p. 191–222
  16. Van Heertum RL, Drocea C, Ichise M, et al. Single photon emission CT and positron emission tomography in the evaluation of neurology disease. Radiol Clin N Am. 2001;39:1007–1033
  17. Gaillard WD, Fazilat S, White S, et al. Interictal blood flow and metabolism are uncoupled in temporal lobe cortex in patients with complex partial epilepsy. Neurology. 1995;45:1841–1847
  18. Lee DS, Lee JS, Kang KW, et al. Disparity of perfusion and glucose metabolism of epileptogenic zones in temporal lobe epilepsy demonstrated by SPM/SPAM analysis on 15O water PET, [18F]FDG-PET, and [99mTc]-HMPAO SPECT. Epilepsia. 2001;42:1515–1522
  19. Hougaard K, Oikawa T, Sveinsdottir E, et al. Regional cerebral blood flow in focal cortical epilepsy. Arch Neurol. 1976;33:527–535
  20. Engel J, Kuhl DE, Phelps ME, et al. Local cerebral metabolism during partial seizures. Neurology. 1983;33:400–413
  21. Li LM, Fish DR, Sisodiya SM, et al. High resolution magnetic resonance imaging in adults with partial or secondary generalised epilepsy attending a tertiary referral unit. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 1995;59:84–87
  22. Hill TC, Holman L, Lovett R, et al. Initial experience with SPECT of the brain using N-isopropyl I-123 p-iodoamphetamine: Concise communication. J Nucl Med. 1982;23:191–195
  23. Lee BI, Markand ON, Siddiqui AR, et al. Single photon emission computed tomography (SPECT) brain imaging using N,N,N′-trimethyl-N′-(2 hydroxy-3-methyl-5-123I-iodobenzyl)-1,3-propanediamine 2 HCl (HIPDM): Intractable complex partial seizures. Neurology. 1986;36:1471–1477
  24. Lee BI, Markand ON, Wellman HN, et al. HIPDM single photon emission computed tomography brain imaging in partial onset secondarily generalized tonic-clonic seizures. Epilepsia. 1987;28:305–311
  25. Biersack HJ, Reichmann K, Winkler C, et al. 99mTc-labelled hexamethylpropyleneamine oxime photon emission scans in epilepsy. Lancet. 1985;2:1436–1437
  26. Stefan H, Kuhnen C, Biersack HJ, et al. Initial experience with 99mTc-hexamethyl-propylene amine oxime (HM-PAO) single photon emission computed tomography (SPECT) in patients with focal epilepsy. Epilepsy Res. 1987;1:134–138
  27. Harvey AS. SPECT in the presurgical evaluation of children with intractable partial seizures. In:  Tuxhorn I,  Holthausen H,  Boenigk H editor. Paediatric Epilepsy Syndromes and their Surgical Treatment. London: John Libbey; 1997;p. 261–273
  28. Warwick JM. Imaging of brain function using SPECT. Metab Brain Dis. 2004;19:113–123
  29. Saha GB, MacIntyre WJ, Go RT. Radiopharmaceuticals for brain imaging. Semin Nucl Med. 1994;24:324–349
  30. Grunwald F, Menzel C, Pavics L, et al. Ictal and interictal brain SPECT imaging in epilepsy using technetium-99m-ECD. J Nucl Med. 1994;35:1896–1901
  31. Lee DS, Lee SK, Kim YK, et al. Superiority of HMPAO ictal SPECT to ECD ictal SPECT in localizing the epileptogenic zone. Epilepsia. 2002;43:263–269
  32. O’Brien TJ, Brinkmann BH, Mullan BP, et al. Comparative study of 99mTc-ECD and 99mTc-HMPAO for peri-ictal SPECT: Qualitative and quantitative analysis. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 1999;66:331–339
  33. Asenbaum S, Brucke T, Pirker W, et al. Imaging of cerebral blood flow with technetium-99m-HMPAO and technetium-99m-ECD: A comparison. J Nucl Med. 1998;39:613–618
  34. Smith BJ, Karvelis KC, Cronan S, et al. Developing an effective program to complete ictal SPECT in the epilepsy monitoring unit. Epilepsy Res. 1999;33:189–197
  35. Van Paesschen W, Dupont P, Van Heerden B, et al. Self-injection ictal SPECT during partial seizures. Neurology. 2000;54:1994–1997
  36. Wintermark M, Sesay M, Barbier E, et al. Comparative overview of brain perfusion imaging techniques. J Neuroradiol. 2005;32:294–314
  37. Wintermark M, Sesay M, Barbier E, et al. Comparative overview of brain perfusion imaging techniques. Stroke. 2005;36:83–99
  38. Commission on Diagnostic Strategies. Recommendations for functional neuroimaging of persons with epilepsy. Epilepsia. 2000;41:1350–1356
  39. Devous MD, Leroy RF, Homan RW. Single photon emission computed tomography in epilepsy. Semin Nucl Med. 1990;20:325–341
  40. Duncan R. SPECT imaging in focal epilepsy. In:  Duncan R editors. SPECT Imaging of the Brain. Dordrecht: Kluwer; 1997;p. 43–68
  41. Vehoeff NP, Buell U, Costa DC, et al. Basics and recommendations for brain SPECT (Task Group “Neurology” of the European Association of Nuclear Medicine). Nuklearmedizin. 1992;31:114–131
  42. Prince DA, Wilder BJ. Control mechanisms in cortical epileptogenic foci. “Surround” inhibition. Arch Neurol. 1967;16:194–202
  43. Lee SK, Yun CH, Oh JB, et al. Intracranial ictal onset zone in non lesional lateral temporal lobe epilepsy on scalp ictal EEG. Neurology. 2003;61:757–764
  44. Williamson PD, Thadani VM, Darcey TM, et al. Occipital lobe epilepsy: Clinical characteristics, seizure spread patterns, and results of surgery. Ann Neurol. 1992;31:3–13
  45. Williamson PD, Boon PA, Thadani VM, et al. Parietal lobe epilepsy: Diagnostic considerations and results of surgery. Ann Neurol. 1992;31:193–201
  46. Noachtar S, Arnold S, Yousry TA, et al. Ictal technetium-99m ethyl cysteinate dimer single-photon emission tomographic findings and propagation of epileptic seizure activity in patients with extratemporal epilepsies. Eur J Nucl Med. 1998;25:166–172
  47. So EL. Integration of EEG, MRI and SPECT in localizing the seizure focus for epilepsy surgery. Epilepsia. 2000;41(suppl 3):s48–s54
  48. Heiskala H, Launes J, Pihko H, et al. Brain perfusion SPECT in children with frequent fits. Brain Dev. 1993;15:214–218
  49. Bruggemann JM, Som SS, Lawson JA, et al. Application of statistical parametric mapping to SPET in the assessment of intractable childhood epilepsy. Eur J Nucl Med Mol Imaging. 2004;31:369–377
  50. Lee JD, Kim HJ, Lee BI, et al. Evaluation of ictal brain SPET using statistical parametric mapping in temporal lobe epilepsy. Eur J Nucl Med. 2000;27:1658–1665
  51. Tae WS, Joo EY, Kim JH, et al. Cerebral perfusion changes in mesial temporal lobe epilepsy: SPM analysis of ictal and interictal SPECT. Neuroimage. 2005;24:101–110
  52. Muzik O, Chugani DC, Juhasz C, et al. Statistical parametric mapping: Assessment of application in children. Neuroimage. 2000;12:538–549
  53. O’Brien TJ, So EL, Mullan BP, et al. Subtraction ictal SPECT co-registered to MRI improves clinical usefulness of SPECT in localizing the surgical seizure focus. Neurology. 1998;50:445–454
  54. O’Brien TJ, So EL, Mullan BP, et al. Subtraction SPECT co-registered to MRI improves postictal SPECT localization of seizure foci. Neurology. 1999;52:137–146
  55. O’Brien TJ, So EL, Mullan BP, et al. Subtraction peri-ictal SPECT is predictive of extratemporal epilepsy surgery outcome. Neurology. 2000;55:1668–1677
  56. O’Brien TJ, So EL, Cascino GD, et al. Subtraction SPECT coregistered to MRI in focal malformations of cortical development: Localization of the epileptogenic zone in epilepsy surgery candidates. Epilepsia. 2004;45:367–376
  57. Lawson JA, O’Brien TJ, Bleasel AF, et al. Evaluation of SPECT in the assessment and treatment of intractable childhood epilepsy. Neurology. 2000;55:1391–1393
  58. Chiron C, Vera P, Kaminska A, et al. Single-photon emission computed tomography: ictal perfusion in childhood epilepsies. Brain Dev. 1999;21:444–446
  59. Kaminska A, Chiron C, Ville D, et al. Ictal SPECT in children with epilepsy: Comparison with intracranial EEG and relation to postsurgical outcome. Brain. 2003;126:248–260
  60. Valenti MP, Froelich S, Armspach JP, et al. Contribution of SISCOM imaging in the presurgical evaluation of temporal lobe epilepsy related to dysembryoplastic neuroepithelial tumors. Epilepsia. 2002;43:270–276
  61. Vera P, Kaminska A, Cieuta C, et al. Use of subtraction ictal SPECT co-registered to MRI for optimizing the localization of seizure foci in children. J Nucl Med. 1999;40:786–792
  62. Chiron C, Vera P, Kaminska A, et al. Ictal SPECT in the epileptic child (Contribution of subtraction interictal images and superposition of with MRI). Rev Neurol. 1999;155:477–481(Paris)
  63. Borgwardt L, Larsen HJ, Pedersen K, et al. Practical use and implementation of PET in children in a hospital PET centre. Eur J Nucl Med Mol Imaging. 2003;30:1389–1397
  64. Suhonen-Polvi H, Ruotsalainen U, Kinnala A, et al. FDG-PET in early infancy: Simplified quantification methods to measure cerebral glucose utilization. J Nucl Med. 1995;36:1249–1254
  65. Casse R, Rowe CC, Newton M, et al. Positron emission tomography and epilepsy. Mol Imaging Biol. 2002;4:338–351
  66. O’Brien TJ, Hicks RJ, Ware R, et al. The utility of a 3-dimensional, large-field-of-view, sodium iodide crystal-based PET scanner in the presurgical evaluation of partial epilepsy. J Nucl Med. 2001;42:1158–1165
  67. O’Brien TJ, Newton MR, Cook MJ, et al. Hippocampal atrophy is not a major determinant of regional hypometabolism in temporal lobe epilepsy. Epilepsia. 1997;38:74–80
  68. Foldvary N, Lee N, Hanson MW, et al. Correlation of hippocampal neuronal density and FDG-PET in mesial temporal lobe epilepsy. Epilepsia. 1999;40:26–29
  69. Koepp MJ, Woermann FG. Imaging structure and function in refractory focal epilepsy. Lancet Neurol. 2005;4:42–53
  70. Sood S, Chugani HT. Functional neuroimaging in the preoperative evaluation of children with drug-resistant epilepsy. Childs Nervs Syst. 2006;22:810–820
  71. Theodore WH, Gaillard WD. Positron emission tomography in neocortical epilepsies. In:  Williamson PD,  Siegel AM,  Robert DW, et al. editor. Advances in Neurology. Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams and Wilkins; 2000;p. 435–446
  72. Hajek M, Antonini A, Leenders KL, et al. Mesiobasal versus lateral temporal lobe epilepsy: Metabolic differences in the temporal lobe shown by interictal 18F-FDG positron emission tomography. Neurology. 1993;43:79–86
  73. Valk PE, Laxer KD, Barbero NM, et al. High-resolution (2.6-mm) PET in partial complex epilepsy associated with mesial temporal sclerosis. Radiology. 1993;186:55–58
  74. Henry TR, Mazziotta JC, Engel J, et al. Quantifying interictal metabolic activity in human temporal lobe epilepsy. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab. 1990;10:748–757
  75. Arnold S, Schlaug G, Niemann H, et al. Topography of interictal glucose hypometabolism in unilateral mesiotemporal epilepsy. Neurology. 1996;46:1422–1430
  76. Gaillard WD, White S, Malow B, et al. FDG-PET in children and adolescents with partial seizures: Role in epilepsy surgery evaluation. Epilepsy Res. 1995;20:77–84
  77. Juhasz C, Chugani DC, Muzik O, et al. Relationship of flumazenil and glucose PET abnormalities to neocortical epilepsy surgery outcome. Neurology 26;. 2001;56:1650–1658
  78. Ollenberger GP, Byrne AJ, Berlangieri SU, et al. Assessment of the role of FDG-PET in the diagnosis and management of children with refractory epilepsy. Eur J Nucl Med Mol Imaging. 2005;32:1311–1316
  79. Joo EY, Hong SB, Han HJ, et al. Postoperative alteration of cerebral glucose metabolism in mesial temporal lobe epilepsy. Brain. 2005;128:1802–1810
  80. Akimura T, Yeh HS, Mantil JC, et al. Cerebral metabolism of the remote area after epilepsy surgery. Neurol Med Chir. 1999;39:16–25(Tokyo)
  81. Frey KA. Positron emission tomography. In:  Seigel GJ,  Agranoff BW,  Albers RW,  Molinoff PB editor. Basic Neurochemistry: Molecular, Cellular and Medical Aspects. (ed 5). New York: Raven Press; 1994;p. 935–955
  82. Henry TR, Babb TL, Engel J, et al. Hippocampal neuronal loss and regional hypometabolism in temporal lobe epilepsy. Ann Neurol. 1994;36:925–927
  83. Sackellares JC, Siegel GJ, Abou-Khalil BW, et al. Differences between lateral and mesial temporal metabolism interictally in epilepsy of mesial temporal origin. Neurology. 1990;40:1420–1426
  84. Engel J, Brown WJ, Kuhl DE, et al. Pathological findings underlying focal temporal lobe hypometabolism in partial epilepsy. Ann Neurol. 1982;12:518–528
  85. Benifla M, Otsubo H, Ochi A, et al. Temporal lobe surgery for intractable epilepsy in children: An analysis of outcomes in 126 children. Neurosurgery. 2006;59:1203–1213
  86. Theodore WH, Newmark ME, Sato S, et al. [18F]fluorodeoxyglucose positron emission tomography in refractory complex partial seizures. Ann Neurol. 1983;14:429–437
  87. Blum DE, Ehsan T, Dungan D, et al. Bilateral temporal hypometabolism in epilepsy. Epilepsia. 1998;39:651–659
  88. Casse R, Rowe CC, Newton MD, et al. Positron emission tomography and epilepsy. Mol Imag Biol. 2002;4:338–351
  89. Delbeke D, Lawrence SK, Abou-Khalil BW, et al. Postsurgical outcome of patients with uncontrolled complex partial seizures and temporal lobe hypometabolism on 18FDG-positron emission tomography. Invest Radiol. 1996;31:261–266
  90. Lee JJ, Kang WJ, Lee DS, et al. Diagnostic performance of 18F-FDG-PET and ictal 99mTc-HMPAO SPET in pediatric temporal lobe epilepsy: Quantitative analysis by statistical parametric mapping, statistical probabilistic anatomical map, and subtraction ictal SPET. Seizure. 2005;14:213–220
  91. Rowe CC, Berkovic SF, Austin MC, et al. Patterns of postictal cerebral blood flow in temporal lobe epilepsy: Qualitative and quantitative analysis. Neurology. 1991;41:1096–1103
  92. Ho SS, Berkovic SF, McKay WJ, et al. Temporal lobe epilepsy subtypes: Differential patterns of cerebral perfusion on ictal SPECT. Epilepsia. 1996;37:788–795
  93. Ho SS, Newton MR, McIntosh AM, et al. Perfusion patterns during temporal lobe seizures: relationship to surgical outcome. Brain. 1997;120:1921–1928
  94. Newton MR, Berkovic SF, Austin MC, et al. Postictal switch in blood flow distribution and temporal lobe seizures. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 1992;55:891–894
  95. Newton MR, Berkovic SF, Austin MC, et al. Dystonia, clinical lateralization, and regional blood flow changes in temporal lobe seizures. Neurology. 1992;42:371–377
  96. Harvey AS, Bowe JM, Hopkins IJ, et al. Ictal 99mTc-HMPAO single photon emission computed tomography in children with temporal lobe epilepsy. Epilepsia. 1993;34:869–877
  97. Wyllie E, Comair YG, Kotagal P, et al. Seizure outcome after epilepsy surgery in children and adolescents. Ann Neurol. 1998;44:740–748
  98. Lee SK, Lee SY, Kim KK, et al. Surgical outcome and prognostic factors of cryptogenic neocortical epilepsy. Ann Neurol. 2005;58:525–532
  99. Hong KS, Lee SK, Kim JY, et al. Pre-surgical evaluation and surgical outcome of 41 patients with non-lesional neocortical epilepsy. Seizure. 2002;11:184–192
  100. Radtke RA, Hanson MW, Hoffman JM, et al. Positron emission tomography: comparison of clinical utility in temporal and extratemporal lobe epilepsy. J Epilepsy. 1994;7:27–33
  101. Matheja P, Kuwert T, Ludemann P, et al. Temporal hypometabolism at the onset of cryptogenic temporal lobe epilepsy. Eur J Nucl Med. 2001;28:625–632
  102. Swartz BW, Khonsari A, Vrown C, et al. Improved sensitivity of 18FDG-positron emission tomography scans in frontal and “frontal plus” epilepsy. Epilepsia. 1995;36:388–395
  103. Kim YK, Lee DS, Lee SK, et al. (18)F-FDG-PET in localization of frontal lobe epilepsy: comparison of visual and SPM analysis. J Nucl Med. 2002;43:1167–1174
  104. Henry TR, Sutherling WW, Engel J, et al. Interictal cerebral metabolism in partial epilepsies of neocortical origin. Epilepsy Res. 1991;10:174–182
  105. Lee SK, Lee SY, Kim KK, et al. Surgical outcome and prognostic factors of cryptogenic neocortical epilepsy. Ann Neurol. 2005;58:525–532
  106. Da Silva EA, Chugani DC, Muzik O, et al. Identification of frontal lobe epileptic foci in children using positron emission tomography. Epilepsia. 1997;38:1198–1208
  107. Kim DW, Lee SK, Yun CH, et al. Parietal lobe epilepsy: The semiology, yield of diagnostic workup, and surgical outcome. Epilepsia. 2004;45:641–649
  108. Kun Lee S, Young Lee S, Kim DW, et al. Occipital lobe epilepsy: Clinical characteristics, surgical outcome, and role of diagnostic modalities. Epilepsia. 2005;46:688–695
  109. Meltzer CC, Adelson PD, Brenner RP, et al. Planned ictal FDG-PET imaging for localization of extratemporal epileptic foci. Epilepsia. 2000;41:193–200
  110. Engel J, Kuhl DE, Phelps ME. Patterns of human local cerebral glucose metabolism during epileptic seizures. Science. 1982;218:64–66
  111. Bruehl C, Hagemann G, Witte OW. Uncoupling of blood flow and metabolism in focal epilepsy. Epilepsia. 1998;39:1235–1242
  112. Hwang SI, Kim JH, Park SW, et al. Comparative analysis of MR imaging, positron emission tomography, and ictal single-photon emission CT in patients with neocortical epilepsy. Am J Neuroradiol. 2001;22:937–946
  113. Sturm JW, Newton MR, Chinvarun Y, et al. Ictal SPECT and interictal PET in the localization of occipital lobe epilepsy. Epilepsia. 2000;41:463–466
  114. Kim SK, Lee DS, Lee SK, et al. Diagnostic performance of [18F]FDG-PET and ictal [99mTc]-HMPAO SPECT in occipital lobe epilepsy. Epilepsia. 2001;42:1531–1540
  115. Harvey AS, Hopkins IJ, Bowe JM, et al. Frontal lobe epilepsy: Clinical seizure characteristics and localization with ictal 99mTc-HMPAO SPECT. Neurology. 1993;43:1966–1980
  116. Wetjen NM, Cascino GD, Fessler AJ, et al. Subtraction ictal single-photon emission computed tomography coregistered to magnetic resonance imaging in evaluating the need for repeated epilepsy surgery. J Neurosurg. 2006;105:71–76
  117. Juhasz C, Chugani DC, Padhye UN, et al. Evaluation with alpha-[11C]methyl-L-tryptophan positron emission tomography for reoperation after failed epilepsy surgery. Epilepsia. 2004;45:124–130
  118. Asarnow RF, Lopresti C. Adaptive functioning in children receiving resective surgery for medically intractable infantile spasms. In:  Tuxhorn I,  Holthausen H,  Boenigk H editor. Paediatric Epilepsy Syndromes and their Surgical Treatment. London: John Libbey; 1997;p. 526–536
  119. Chugani HT, Da Silva E, Chugani C, et al. PET in the diagnostic evaluation of children with focal epilepsy. In:  Tuxhorn I,  Holthausen H,  Boenigk H editor. Paediatric Epilepsy Syndromes and their Surgical Treatment. London: John Libbey; 1997;p. 592–606
  120. Chugani HT, Shields WD, Shewmon DA, et al. Surgery for intractable infantile spasms: Neuroimaging perspectives. Epilepsia. 1993;34:764–771
  121. Chugani HT, Conti JR. Etiologic classification of infantile spasms in 140 cases: Role of positron emission tomography. J Child Neurol. 1996;11:44–48
  122. Szelies B, Herholz K, Heiss WD, et al. Hypometabolic cortical lesions in tuberous sclerosis with epilepsy: Demonstration by positron emission tomography. J Comput Assist Tomogr. 1983;7:946–953
  123. Asano E, Chugani DC, Muzik O, et al. Multimodality imaging for improved detection of epileptogenic foci in tuberous sclerosis complex. Neurology. 2000;54:1976–1984
  124. Chugani DC, Chugani HT, Muzik O, et al. Imaging epileptogenic tubers in children with tuberous sclerosis complex using alpha-[11C]methyl-L-tryptophan positron emission tomography. Ann Neurol. 1998;44:858–866
  125. Kagawa K, Chugani DC, Asano E, et al. Epilepsy surgery outcome in children with tuberous sclerosis complex evaluated with alpha-[11C]methyl-L-tryptophan positron emission tomography (PET). J Child Neurol. 2005;20:429–438
  126. Chandra PS, Salamon N, Huang J, et al. FDG-PET/MRI coregistration and diffusion-tensor imaging distinguish epileptogenic tubers and cortex in patients with tuberous sclerosis complex: A preliminary report. Epilepsia. 2006;47:1543–1549
  127. Koh S, Jayakar P, Resnick T, et al. The localizing value of ictal SPECT in children with tuberous sclerosis complex and refractory partial epilepsy. Epileptic Disord. 1999;1:41–46
  128. Hammers A, Koepp MJ, Hurlemann R, et al. Abnormalities of grey and white matter [11C]flumazenil binding in temporal lobe epilepsy with normal MRI. Brain. 2002;125:2257–2271
  129. Savic I, Thorell JO, Roland P: [11C]flumazenil positron emission tomography visualizes frontal epileptogenic regions. Epilepsia 36:1225-1232
  130. Juhasz C, Chugani DC, Muzik O, et al. Electroclinical correlates of flumazenil and fluorodeoxyglucose PET abnormalities in lesional epilepsy. Neurology. 2000;55:825–835
  131. Carstensen H, Juhler M, Wagner A. [Central nervous system tumors in children]. Ugeskr Laeger. 1999;161:2186–2191
  132. Young H, Baum R, Cremerius U, et al. Measurement of clinical and subclinical tumour response using [18F]-fluorodeoxyglucose and positron emission tomography: Review and 1999 EORTC recommendations (European Organization for Research and Treatment of Cancer (EORTC) PET Study Group). Eur J Cancer. 1999;35:1773–1782
  133. Pötter R, Czech TH, Dieckmann I, et al. Tumors of the central nervous system. In:  Voute PA,  Kalifa C,  Barrett A editor. Cancer in Children (Clinical Management). (ed 4). New York: Oxford University Press; 1998;p. 170–193
  134. Schmiegelow M, Lassen S, Weber L, et al. Dosimetry and growth hormone deficiency following cranial irradiation of childhood brain tumors. Med Pediatr Oncol. 1999;33:564–571
  135. Schmiegelow M, Lassen S, Poulsen HS, et al. Cranial radiotherapy of childhood brain tumours: Growth hormone deficiency and its relation to the biological effective dose of irradiation in a large population based study. Clin Endocrinol. 2000;53:191–197(Oxf)
  136. Schmiegelow M, Lassen S, Poulsen HS, et al. Gonadal status in male survivors following childhood brain tumors. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2001;86:2446–2452
  137. Reimers TS, Ehrenfels S, Mortensen EL, et al. Cognitive deficits in long-term survivors of childhood brain tumors: Identification of predictive factors. Med Pediatr Oncol. 2003;40:26–34
  138. Sonderkaer S, Schmiegelow M, Carstensen H, et al. Long-term neurological outcome of childhood brain tumors treated by surgery only. J Clin Oncol. 2003;21:1347–1351
  139. Benard F, Romsa J, Hustinx R. Imaging gliomas with positron emission tomography and single-photon emission computed tomography. Semin Nucl Med. 2003;33:148–162
  140. Schlemmer HP, Bachert P, Henze M, et al. Differentiation of radiation necrosis from tumor progression using proton magnetic resonance spectroscopy. Neuroradiology. 2002;44:216–222
  141. Di Chiro G, DeLaPaz RL, Brooks RA, et al. Glucose utilization of cerebral gliomas measured by [18F] fluorodeoxyglucose and positron emission tomography. Neurology. 1982;32:1323–1329
  142. Borgwardt L, Hojgaard L, Carstensen H, et al. Increased fluorine-18 2-fluoro-2-deoxy-D-glucose (FDG) uptake in childhood CNS tumors is correlated with malignancy grade: A study with FDG positron emission tomography/magnetic resonance imaging coregistration and image fusion. J Clin Oncol. 2005;23:3030–3037
  143. Utriainen M, Metsahonkala L, Salmi TT, et al. Metabolic characterization of childhood brain tumors: Comparison of 18F-fluorodeoxyglucose and 11C-methionine positron emission tomography. Cancer. 2002;95:1376–1386
  144. Hoffman JM, Hanson MW, Friedman HS, et al. FDG-PET in pediatric posterior fossa brain tumors. J Comput Assist Tomogr. 1992;16:62–68
  145. Holthoff VA, Herholz K, Berthold F, et al. In vivo metabolism of childhood posterior fossa tumors and primitive neuroectodermal tumors before and after treatment. Cancer. 1993;72:1394–1403
  146. Blasberg RG. Prediction of brain tumor therapy response by PET. J Neurooncol. 1994;22:281–286
  147. Kim CK, Alavi JB, Alavi A, et al. New grading system of cerebral gliomas using positron emission tomography with F-18 fluorodeoxyglucose. J Neurooncol. 1991;10:85–91
  148. Di Chiro G, Brooks RA, Patronas NJ, et al. Issues in the in vivo measurement of glucose metabolism of human central nervous system tumors. Ann Neurol. 1984;15(suppl):S138–S146
  149. Herholz K, Rudolf J, Heiss WD. FDG transport and phosphorylation in human gliomas measured with dynamic PET. J Neurooncol. 1992;12:159–165
  150. Mineura K, Yasuda T, Kowada M, et al. Positron emission tomographic evaluation of histological malignancy in gliomas using oxygen-15 and fluorine-18-fluorodeoxyglucose. Neurol Res. 1986;8:164–168
  151. Patronas NJ, Brooks RA, DeLaPaz RL, et al. Glycolytic rate (PET) and contrast enhancement (CT) in human cerebral gliomas. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol. 1983;4:533–535
  152. Hustinx R, Alavi A. SPECT and PET imaging of brain tumors. Neuroimaging Clin N Am. 1999;9:751–766
  153. Thiel A, Pietrzyk U, Sturm V, et al. Enhanced accuracy in differential diagnosis of radiation necrosis by positron emission tomography-magnetic resonance imaging coregistration: Technical case report. Neurosurgery. 2000;46:232–234
  154. Molenkamp G, Riemann B, Kuwert T, et al. Monitoring tumor activity in low grade glioma of childhood. Klin Padiatr. 1998;210:239–242
  155. Kaplan AM, Bandy DJ, Manwaring KH, et al. Functional brain mapping using positron emission tomography scanning in preoperative neurosurgical planning for pediatric brain tumors. J Neurosurg. 1999;91:797–803
  156. Messing-Junger AM, Floeth FW, Pauleit D, et al. Multimodal target point assessment for stereotactic biopsy in children with diffuse bithalamic astrocytomas. Childs Nerv Syst. 2002;18:445–449
  157. Borgwardt L, Larsen HJ, Pedersen K, et al. Practical use and implementation of PET in children in a hospital PET centre. Eur J Nucl Med Mol Imaging. 2003;30:1389–1397
  158. Bruggers CS, Friedman HS, Fuller GN, et al. Comparison of serial PET and MRI scans in a pediatric patient with a brainstem glioma. Med Pediatr Oncol. 1993;21:301–306
  159. Plowman PN, Saunders CA, Maisey M. On the usefulness of brain PET scanning to the paediatric neuro-oncologist. Br J Neurosurg. 1997;11:525–532
  160. O’Tuama LA, Phillips PC, Strauss LC, et al. Two-phase [11C]L-methionine PET in childhood brain tumors. Pediatr Neurol. 1990;6:163–170
  161. Wong TZ, van der Westhuizen GJ, Coleman RE. Positron emission tomography imaging of brain tumors. Neuroimaging Clin N Am. 2002;12:615–626
  162. Di Chiro G, Oldfield E, Wright DC, et al. Cerebral necrosis after radiotherapy and/or intraarterial chemotherapy for brain tumors: PET and neuropathologic studies. AJR Am J Roentgenol. 1988;150:189–197
  163. Valk PE, Dillon WP. Radiation injury of the brain. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol. 1991;12:45–62
  164. Valk PE, Budinger TF, Levin VA, et al. PET of malignant cerebral tumors after interstitial brachytherapy (Demonstration of metabolic activity and correlation with clinical outcome). J Neurosurg. 1988;69:830–838
  165. Doyle WK, Budinger TF, Valk PE, et al. Differentiation of cerebral radiation necrosis from tumor recurrence by [18F]FDG and 82Rb positron emission tomography. J Comput Assist Tomogr. 1987;11:563–570
  166. Patronas NJ, Di Chiro G, Brooks RA, et al. Work in progress: [18F] fluorodeoxyglucose and positron emission tomography in the evaluation of radiation necrosis of the brain. Radiology. 1982;144:885–889
  167. Kim EE, Chung SK, Haynie TP, et al. Differentiation of residual or recurrent tumors from post-treatment changes with F-18 FDG-PET. Radiographics. 1992;12:269–279
  168. Deshmukh A, Scott JA, Palmer EL, et al. Impact of fluorodeoxyglucose positron emission tomography on the clinical management of patients with glioma. Clin Nucl Med. 1996;21:720–725
  169. Chao ST, Suh JH, Raja S, et al. The sensitivity and specificity of FDG-PET in distinguishing recurrent brain tumor from radionecrosis in patients treated with stereotactic radiosurgery. Int J Cancer. 2001;96:191–197
  170. Ricci PE, Karis JP, Heiserman JE, et al. Differentiating recurrent tumor from radiation necrosis: Time for re-evaluation of positron emission tomography?. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol. 1998;19:407–413
  171. Kahn D, Follett KA, Bushnell DL, et al. Diagnosis of recurrent brain tumor: Value of 201Tl SPECT vs 18F-fluorodeoxyglucose PET. AJR Am J Roentgenol. 1994;163:1459–1465
  172. Holzer T, Herholz K, Jeske J, et al. FDG-PET as a prognostic indicator in radiochemotherapy of glioblastoma. J Comput Assist Tomogr. 1993;17:681–687
  173. Tyler JL, Diksic M, Villemure JG, et al. Metabolic and hemodynamic evaluation of gliomas using positron emission tomography. J Nucl Med. 1987;28:1123–1133
  174. Rozental JM, Levine RL, Nickles RJ, et al. Glucose uptake by gliomas after treatment (A positron emission tomographic study). Arch Neurol. 1989;46:1302–1307
  175. Mineura K, Yasuda T, Kowada M, et al. Positron emission tomographic evaluation of radiochemotherapeutic effect on regional cerebral hemocirculation and metabolism in patients with gliomas. J Neurooncol. 1987;5:277–285
  176. Borgwardt L, Højgaard L, Carstensen H, et al: Fluorine-18 2-fluoro-2-deoxy-D-glucose positron emission tomography with magnetic resonance imaging co-registration is useful for monitoring hypermetabolic childhood brain tumors. Pediatr Blood Cancer (in press)
  177. Botker HE, Bottcher M, Schmitz O, et al. Glucose uptake and lumped constant variability in normal human hearts determined with [18F]fluorodeoxyglucose. J Nucl Cardiol. 1997;4:125–132
  178. Poulsen PH, Smith DF, Ostergaard L, et al. In vivo estimation of cerebral blood flow, oxygen consumption and glucose metabolism in the pig by [15O]water injection, [15O]oxygen inhalation and dual injections of [18F]fluorodeoxyglucose. J Neurosci Methods. 1997;77:199–209
  179. Kuwabara H, Gjedde A. Measurements of glucose phosphorylation with FDG and PET are not reduced by dephosphorylation of FDG-6-phosphate. J Nucl Med. 1991;32:692–698
  180. Kuwabara H, Evans AC, Gjedde A. Michaelis-Menten constraints improved cerebral glucose metabolism and regional lumped constant measurements with [18F]fluorodeoxyglucose. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab. 1990;10:180–189
  181. Delbeke D, Meyerowitz C, Lapidus RL, et al. Optimal cutoff levels of F-18 fluorodeoxyglucose uptake in the differentiation of low-grade from high-grade brain tumors with PET. Radiology. 1995;195:47–52
  182. Meyer PT, Schreckenberger M, Spetzger U, et al. Comparison of visual and ROI-based brain tumour grading using 18F-FDG-PET: ROC analyses. Eur J Nucl Med. 2001;28:165–174
  183. Brock CS, Young H, O’Reilly SM, et al. Early evaluation of tumour metabolic response using [18F]fluorodeoxyglucose and positron emission tomography: a pilot study following the phase II chemotherapy schedule for temozolomide in recurrent high-grade gliomas. Br J Cancer. 2000;82:608–615
  184. Fulham MJ, Brunetti A, Aloj L, et al. Decreased cerebral glucose metabolism in patients with brain tumors: an effect of corticosteroids. J Neurosurg. 1995;83:657–664
  185. Herholz K, Holzer T, Bauer B, et al. 11C-methionine PET for differential diagnosis of low-grade gliomas. Neurology. 1998;50:1316–1322
  186. Peet AC, Leach MO, Pinkerton CR, et al. The development of functional imaging in the diagnosis, management and understanding of childhood brain tumours. Pediatr Blood Cancer. 2005;44:103–113
  187. Pauleit D, Floeth F, Hamacher K, et al. O-(2-[18F]fluoroethyl)-L-tyrosine PET combined with MRI improves the diagnostic assessment of cerebral gliomas. Brain. 2005;128:678–687
  188. Ishiwata K, Enomoto K, Sasaki T, et al. A feasibility study on L-[1-carbon-11]tyrosine and L-[methyl-carbon-11]methionine to assess liver protein synthesis by PET. J Nucl Med. 1996;37:279–285
  189. Hara T, Kosaka N, Shinoura N, et al. PET imaging of brain tumor with [methyl-11C]choline. J Nucl Med. 1997;38:842–847
  190. Shinoura N, Nishijima M, Hara T, et al. Brain tumors: Detection with C-11 choline PET. Radiology. 1997;202:497–503
  191. Del Sole A, Falini A, Ravasi L, et al. Anatomical and biochemical investigation of primary brain tumours. Eur J Nucl Med. 2001;28:1851–1872
  192. DeGrado TR, Baldwin SW, Wang S, et al. Synthesis and evaluation of (18)F-labeled choline analogs as oncologic PET tracers. J Nucl Med. 2001;42:1805–1814
  193. Shields AF, Grierson JR, Dohmen BM, et al. Imaging proliferation in vivo with [F-18]FLT and positron emission tomography. Nat Med. 1998;4:1334–1336
  194. Mangner TJ, Klecker RW, Anderson L, et al. Synthesis of 2′-deoxy-2′-[18F]fluoro-beta-D-arabinofuranosyl nucleosides, [18F]FAU, [18F]FMAU, [18F]FBAU and [18F]FIAU, as potential PET agents for imaging cellular proliferation (Synthesis of [18F]labelled FAU, FMAU, FBAU, FIAU). Nucl Med Biol. 2003;30:215–224
  195. Saleem A, Brown GD, Brady F, et al. Metabolic activation of temozolomide measured in vivo using positron emission tomography. Cancer Res. 2003;63:2409–2415
  196. O’Tuama LA, Treves ST, Larar JN, et al. Thallium-201 versus technetium-99m-MIBI SPECT in evaluation of childhood brain tumors: a within-subject comparison. J Nucl Med. 1993;34:1045–1051
  197. Maria BL, Drane WE, Mastin ST, et al. Comparative value of thallium and glucose SPECT imaging in childhood brain tumors. Pediatr Neurol. 1998;19:351–357
  198. Rollins NK, Lowry PA, Shapiro KN. Comparison of gadolinium-enhanced MR and thallium-201 single photon emission computed tomography in pediatric brain tumors. Pediatr Neurosurg. 1995;22:8–14
  199. Maria BL, Drane WE, Quisling RG, et al. Value of thallium-201 SPECT imaging in childhood brain tumors. Pediatr Neurosurg. 1994;20:11–18
  200. Maria BL, Drane WB, Quisling RJ, et al. Correlation between gadolinium-diethylenetriaminepentaacetic acid contrast enhancement and thallium-201 chloride uptake in pediatric brainstem glioma. J Child Neurol. 1997;12:341–348
  201. O’Tuama LA, Poussaint TY, Anthony DC, et al. Childhood brain tumor: Neuroimaging correlated with disease outcome. Pediatr Neurol. 1998;19:259–262
  202. O’Tuama LA, Janicek MJ, Barnes PD, et al. 201Tl/99mTc-HMPAO SPECT imaging of treated childhood brain tumors. Pediatr Neurol. 1991;7:249–257
  203. Ando A, Ando I, Katayama M, et al. Biodistributions of 201Tl in tumor bearing animals and inflammatory lesion induced animals. Eur J Nucl Med. 1987;12:567–572
  204. Kaplan WD, Takvorian T, Morris JH, et al. Thallium-201 brain tumor imaging: a comparative study with pathologic correlation. J Nucl Med. 1987;28:47–52
  205. Schillaci O, Filippi L, Manni C, et al. Single-photon emission computed tomography/computed tomography in brain tumors. Semin Nucl Med. 2007;37:34–47
  206. Sun D, Liu Q, Liu W, et al. Clinical application of 201Tl SPECT imaging of brain tumors. J Nucl Med. 2000;41:5–10
  207. Carvalho PA, Schwartz RB, Alexander E, et al. Detection of recurrent gliomas with quantitative thallium-201/technetium-99m HMPAO single-photon emission computerized tomography. J Neurosurg. 1992;77:565–570
  208. Bagni B, Pinna L, Tamarozzi R, et al. SPET imaging of intracranial tumours with 99Tcm-sestamibi. Nucl Med Commun. 1995;16:258–264
  209. Maffioli L, Steens J, Pauwels E, et al. Applications of 99mTc-sestamibi in oncology. Tumori. 1996;82:12–21
  210. Maffioli L, Gasparini M, Chiti A, et al. Clinical role of technetium-99m sestamibi single-photon emission tomography in evaluating pretreated patients with brain tumours. Eur J Nucl Med. 1996;23:308–311
  211. O’Tuama LA, Packard AB, Treves ST. SPECT imaging of pediatric brain tumor with hexakis (methoxyisobutylisonitrile) technetium (I). J Nucl Med. 1990;31:2040–2041
  212. Kirton A, Kloiber R, Rigel J, et al. Evaluation of pediatric CNS malignancies with (99m)Tc-methoxyisobutylisonitrile SPECT. J Nucl Med. 2002;43:1438–1443
  213. Biersack HJ, Coenen HH, Stocklin G, et al. Imaging of brain tumors with L-3-[123I]iodo-alpha-methyl tyrosine and SPECT. J Nucl Med. 1989;30:110–112
  214. Langen KJ, Ziemons K, Kiwit JC, et al. 3-[123I]iodo-alpha-methyltyrosine and [methyl-11C]-L-methionine uptake in cerebral gliomas: A comparative study using SPECT and PET. J Nucl Med. 1997;38:517–522
  215. Langen KJ, Roosen N, Coenen HH, et al. Brain and brain tumor uptake of L-3-[123I]iodo-alpha-methyl tyrosine: Competition with natural L-amino acids. J Nucl Med. 1991;32:1225–1229
  216. Reubi JC, Lang W, Maurer R, et al. Distribution and biochemical characterization of somatostatin receptors in tumors of the human central nervous system. Cancer Res. 1987;47:5758–5764
  217. Krenning EP, Kwekkeboom DJ, Bakker WH, et al. Somatostatin receptor scintigraphy with [111In-DTPA-D-Phe1]- and [123I-Tyr3]-octreotide: The Rotterdam experience with more than 1000 patients. Eur J Nucl Med. 1993;20:716–731
  218. Schmidt M, Scheidhauer K, Luyken C, et al. Somatostatin receptor imaging in intracranial tumours. Eur J Nucl Med. 1998;25:675–686
  219. Muller HL, Fruhwald MC, Scheubeck M, et al. A possible role for somatostatin receptor scintigraphy in the diagnosis and follow-up of children with medulloblastoma. J Neurooncol. 1998;38:27–40
  220. Chugani HT, Phelps ME. Maturational changes in cerebral function in infants determined by 18FDG positron emission tomography. Science. 1986;231:840–843
  221. Thorngren-Jerneck K, Ohlsson T, Sandell A, et al. Cerebral glucose metabolism measured by positron emission tomography in term newborn infants with hypoxic ischemic encephalopathy. Pediatr Res. 2001;49:495–501
  222. Suhonen-Polvi H, Ruotsalainen U, Ahonen A, et al. Positron emission tomography in asphyxiated infants (Preliminary studies of regional cerebral glucose metabolism using 18F-FDG). Acta Radiol Suppl. 1991;376:173
  223. Lou HC. Perinatal hypoxic–ischaemic brain damage and intraventricular haemorrhage. Baillieres Clin Obstet Gynaecol. 1988;2:213–220
  224. Muller RA, Behen ME, Rothermel RD, et al. Brain organization for language in children, adolescents, and adults with left hemisphere lesion: A PET study. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry. 1999;23:657–668
  225. O’Tuama LA, Dickstein DP, Neeper R, et al. Functional brain imaging in neuropsychiatric disorders of childhood. J Child Neurol. 1999;14:207–221
  226. Ernst M, Zametkin AJ, Matochik JA, et al. High midbrain [18F]DOPA accumulation in children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Am J Psychiatry. 1999;156:1209–1215
  227. Lou HC, Rosa P, Pryds O, et al. ADHD: increased dopamine receptor availability linked to attention deficit and low neonatal cerebral blood flow. Dev Med Child Neurol. 2004;46:179–183
  228. Delvenne V, Lotstra F, Goldman S, et al. Brain hypometabolism of glucose in anorexia nervosa: A PET scan study. Biol Psychiatry. 1995;37:161–169
  229. Delvenne V, Goldman S, Simon Y, et al. Brain hypometabolism of glucose in bulimia nervosa. Int J Eat Disord. 1997;21:313–320
  230. Castillo AR, Buchpiguel CA, de Araujo LA, et al. Brain SPECT imaging in children and adolescents with obsessive-compulsive disorder. J Neural Transm. 2005;112:1115–1129
  231. Lee JS, Juhasz C, Kaddurah AK, et al. Patterns of cerebral glucose metabolism in early and late stages of Rasmussen’s syndrome. J Child Neurol. 2001;16:798–805
  232. Fiorella DJ, Provenzale JM, Coleman RE, et al. (18)F-fluorodeoxyglucose positron emission tomography and MR imaging findings in Rasmussen encephalitis. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol. 2001;22:1291–1299
  233. Depas G, Chiron C, Tardieu M, et al. Functional brain imaging in HIV-1-infected children born to seropositive mothers. J Nucl Med. 1995;36:2169–2174
  234. Villemagne PM, Naidu S, Villemagne VL, et al. Brain glucose metabolism in Rett Syndrome. Pediatr Neurol. 2002;27:117–122
  235. Nielsen JB, Friberg L, Lou H, et al. Immature pattern of brain activity in Rett syndrome. Arch Neurol. 1990;47:982–986
  236. Kaplan AM, Chen K, Lawson MA, et al. Positron emission tomography in children with neurofibromatosis-1. J Child Neurol. 1997;12:499–506
  237. Reed W, Jagust W, Al Mateen M, et al. Role of positron emission tomography in determining the extent of CNS ischemia in patients with sickle cell disease. Am J Hematol. 1999;60:268–272
  238. Kedar A, Drane WE, Shaeffer D, et al. Measurement of cerebrovascular flow reserve in pediatric patients with sickle cell disease. Pediatr Blood Cancer. 2005;
  239. Worley G, Hoffman JM, Paine SS, et al. 18-Fluorodeoxyglucose positron emission tomography in children and adolescents with traumatic brain injury. Dev Med Child Neurol. 1995;37:213–220

PII: S0001-2998(07)00053-0

doi: 10.1053/j.semnuclmed.2007.04.002

Seminars in Nuclear Medicine
Volume 37, Issue 5 , Pages 357-381 , September 2007

Article Tools

* Image Usage & Resolution